
Book._^±_ 
GcpiglitN? . 

ccmncHT DEPOsm 



The 
Farmer's Handbook 



A CONVENIENT REFERENCE BOOK 
For All Persons Interested In 

General Farming, Fruit Culture, Truck Farm- 
ing, Market Gardening, Livestock 
Production, Bee Keeping, 
Dairying, Etc. 



International Correspondence Schools 

SCRANTON.PA. 



1st Edition, 6th Thousand, 1st Impression 



scranton.pa. 
International Textbook Company 



.16 



Copyright, 1912, by 

International Textbook Company 

All Rights Reserved 




24070 



PREFACE 

This handbook is intended as a book of reference 
for general farmers, fruit growers, truck farmers, 
market gardeners, hvestock raisers, dairymen, and 
in fact all persons interested in the principles and 
best modern practices of agriculture. Students 
and teachers of agriculture in colleges and public 
schools will find it of great value to them in their 
work, and suburbanites and city and town dwellers 
who have gardens or raise livestock will receive 
much help from a study of its pages. While not a 
treatise covering the entire subject of agriculture; 
it presents facts, data, and information in language 
that is clear, concise, and easily-understood, and 
with the matter arranged in a manner that makes 
the work especially valuable for ready reference. 

Among the subjects treated are: Soil improve- 
ment, general farm crops, fruit and vegetable cul- 
ture, dairying, bee keeping, farm implements and 
machinery, as well as a section on farm livestock; 
this last includes descriptions of the approved types 
and breeds of livestock and the best method for 
the feeding and caring of animals in both health and 
disease. Although the treatment of some of the 



subjects is necessarily brief, the information given 
is of the same high order as that contained in the 
Instruction Papers of the Agricultural Courses of 
the International Correspondence Schools and is in 
strict accord with the latest agricultural methods. 

This handbook was prepared under the super- 
vision of H. O. Sampson, Principal of our School of 
Agriculture, assisted by the following Agricultural 
Editors, all members of our staff of textbook writers: 
J. E. McClintock, S. W. Shoemaker, W. W. Otto. 
H. J. Stevens, and E. D. Stivers. 

International Correspondence Schools. 

November 1, 1912. 



NDEX 



A 

Abscesses, 278. 
Aberdeen-Angus cattle, 208. 
Abortion in farm livestock, 

278. 
Acetic acid as medicine for 

livestock, 274. 
Acid-forming bacteria in milk, 

:ns. 

phosphates as fertilizer, 34. 
Aconite as medicine for live- 
stock. Tincture of, 274. 
Actinomycosis, 278. 
Administration of medicines 

to farm livestock, 273. 
Aeration, Soil, 47. 
Air in soil, 7. 
Alfalfa as green manure, 29. 

as hay and pasture crop, 77. 
Aloes as medicine for live- 
stock, 274. 
Alsike clover as hay and pas- 
ture crop, 75. 
American merino sheep, 219. 
saddle horses, 181. 
trotter horses, 183. 
Ammonia, Sulphate of, 31. 
water, as medicine for live- 
stock, 274. 
Ammoniacal copper carbonate 

as a fungicide, 91. 
Analyses, Misleading method 

of stating fertilizer, 37. 
Anesthetics, 272. 
Anodynes. 272. 
Anthrax, 278. 

Symptomatic, 279. 
Antimony as medicine for 
livestock, Butter of, 275. 
Antispadmodics, 272. 
Apothecaries' fluid measure 
table, 381. 
weight table, 380. 



Apples, Pruning of, 100. 
Spraying of. 101. 
Varieties of, 93. 

Arab horses, 178. 

Arithmetical tables, 378. 

Arnica as medicine for live- 
stock. Tincture of, 274. 

Arrangement of home gar- 
den. 166. 

Arsenate of lead as an insecti- 
cide, 89. 

Arsenic as medicine for live- 
stock, Fowler's solution 
of. 274. 

Arsenite of lime as an insecti- 
cide, 90. 

Artichokes, Jerusalem, 84. 

Ash in feeds, 239. 

Ashes for fertilizer, Wood, 
35. 

Asparagus, 174. 

Astringents, 272. 

Avoirdupois weight table, 
380. 

Avrshire cattle, 201. 

Azoturia, 279. 



Babcock milk test. The. 321. 
Bacon-type swine, 231. 
Bacteria in milk, 315. 

in milk. Acid-forming, 318. 

in milk. Pathogenic, 319. 

in soil, 11. 
Balanced rations, 243. 
Barley, 58. 

Treatment of smut on, 59. 
Barrenness in farm livestock, 

279. 
Barrow, Score card for bacon- 
type. 289. 

Score card for fat-type. 300. 
Basic slag for fertilizer. 35. 



INDEX 



Beam plows, 339. 
Bean and pea thrashers, 352. 
Beans, 175. 

Bee keeping as an industry, 
331. 
keeping, Locations for, 333. 
keeping. Objects of, 331. 
keeping. Profits in, 335. 
keeping. Time required in, 

336. 
stings. Treatment for, 337. 
Beef animal. List of parts of, 
205. 
cattle. Breeds of, 205. 
-cattle class, 214. 
type. Description of, 205. 
Bees, Drone, 339. 

Parthenogenesis in, 339. 
Queen, 337. 
Races of honey, 337. 
Worker, 338. 
Beet lifters, 352. 
Beets, 168. 

Sugar, 83. 
Belgian horses, 188. 
Belladonna as medicine for 
livestock. Fluid extract 
of, 274. 
Berkshire swine, 232. 
Bermuda grass as hay and 

pasture crop, 70. 
Bichloride of mercury as 
medicine for livestock, 
276. 
Black quarter, 279. 
Blackberries, Pruning of, 146. 
Spraying of, 147. 
Varieties of, 146. 
Blackleg, 279. 
Blisters, 273. 
Bloat, 284. 

Blood as fertilizer. Dried, 31. 
Blue grass as hay and pas- 
ture crop, Canada, 68. 
grass as hay and pasture 

crop, Kentucky, 67. 
grass as hay and pasture 

crop, Texas, 71. 
vitriol as medicine for live- 
stock, 274. 
Boars, Rations for herd, 260. 
Boiled milk, 317. 



Bone black as fertilizer, 34. 
as fertilizer. Dissolved, 34. 
as fertiUzer, Raw, 33. 
as fertiUzer, Steamed, 34. 

Bordeaux mixture as a fungi- 
cide, 91. 

Boric acid as medicine for 
livestock, 275. 

Broadcasting seeders, 344. 

Brome grass as hay and pas- 
ture crop. Smooth, 68. 

Brown Swiss cattle, 203. 

Buckwheat, 59. 

Bunchers, Clover, 348. 

Butcher-stock class of cattle, 
214. 



Cabbage, 169. 
Calcium in soil, 10. 
Calomel as medicine for live- 
stock, 275. 
Calves, Veal, 216. 
Camphor as medicine for live- 
stock. Spirits of, 277. 
Canada blue grass as hay and 
pasture crop, 68. 
field peas as green manure, 
27. 
Canadian milk standards, 

329. 
Canners and cutters, 215. 
Capillary water in soil, 6. 
Carbohydrates in feeds, 240. 
Carbolic acid as medicine for 

livestock, 275. 
Care of farm implements and 

machinery, 354. 
Carriage-horse class, 193. 
Carrots, 83, 170. 
Castor oil as medicine for 
livestock, 275. 
pomace as fertilizer, 33. 
Cattle, Aberdeen-Angus, 208. 
Ayrshire. 201. 
Breeds of beef, 205. 
Breeds of dairy, 197. 
Breeds for dual-purpose, 

211. 
Brown Swiss, 203. 
class. Beef, 214. 
class. Butcher-stock, 214. 



INDEX 



vii 



Cattle, Devon, 211. 

Dutch belted, 202. 

French Canadian, 203. 

Galloway, 209. 

Guernsey, 198. 

Hereford, 208. 

Holstein-Friesian, 200. 

Jersey, 198. 

manure, 22, 25. 

Market classes and grades 
of, 212, 213 

Polled Durham, 207. 

Rations for dairy, 257. 

Rations for fattening, 259. 

Red polled, 212. 

Shorthorn, 206. 

Simmethal, 203. 

Sussex, 210. 

Score card for dairy, 294. 

Score card for beef, 295. 
Cauliflower, 170. 
Celery, 170. 
Cerebrospinal meningitis, 

280. 
Charbon, 278. 
Chemical changes in soil, 8. 
Cherries, pruning of, 135. 

Spraying of, 135, 

Varieties of. 131. 
Cheshire swine, 236. 
Chester white swine, 234. 
Cheviot sheep, 225. 
Chinch bug on wheat, 55. 
Choking in farm livestock, 

280. 
Cholera, Hog, 283. 
Chunk-horse class, 192. 
Classification of feeds, 

241. 
Cleanliness in handling milk, 

316. 
Cleveland bay horses, 186. 
Climate for truck farming, 

161. 
Clover as hay and pasture 
crop, Alsike, 75. 

as hay and pasture crop, 
Crimson, 76 . 

as hay and pasture crop. 
Mammoth red, 74. 

as hay and pasture crop. 
Red. 74. 



Clover as hay and pasture 
crop. White, 76. 
bunchers, 348. 
huUers, 353. 
Clovers as green manure, 27. 
Clydesdale horses, 187. 
Coal tar dips, 276. 
Colic in farm livestock, 280. 
Commercial fertilizer, 30. 
Composition of feeds, 238. 

of milk, 313. 
Constipation in farm live- 
stock, 281. 
CooUng of milk, 316. 
Copper sulphate as medicine 

for livestock, 274. 
Copperas as medicine for 

livestock, 275. 
Corn as hay and pasture 
crop, Kafir, 73. 
binders, 350. 
Enemies and diseases of, 

66. 
grown for silage in dif- 
ferent zones of the U. 
S., Table of varieties 
of, 63. 
huskers and shredders, 

351. 
in U. S., Date of first, 
general, and last plant- 
ing and harvesting, 64. 
pickers, 350. 
planters, 345. 
Sweet, 175. 
Varieties of, 60. 
zones in the United States, 
61. 
Corrosive sublimate as med- 
icine for livestock, 276. 
Cotswold sheep, 227. 
Cotton planters, 345. 
Cottonseed meal as ferti- 
lizer, 33. 
Cough in farm livestock, 281. 
Cow, List of parts of, 197. 
Cowpeas as green manure, 
28. 
as hay and pasture crop, 
78. 
Crimson clover as hay and 
pasture crop, 76. 



INDEX 



Crops for home garden, 165. 
from seeding, Table of 
time required for matur- 
ity of different vege- 
table, 366. 
Half-hardy vegetable, 174. 
Hardy vegetable, 168. 
Harvesting of home garden, 

167. 
Hay and pasture, 66. 
Planting of home garden, 

167. 
Root, 82. 
Soiling, 85. 

Tender vegetable, 176. 
Truck-farm, 16.3. 
Cubic measure table, 379. 
Cucumbers, 176. 
Cultivators, 342. 
Culture, Fruit, 89. 
Currants, Pruning of, 150. 

Varieties of, 149. 
Cutters and canners, 215. 
type. Description of, 197. 



Dairying, 313. 
Delaine merino sheep, 220. 
Dentrification by tillage, Les- 
sening of, 48. 
Devon cattle, 211. 
Dewberries, Pruning of, 147. 
Spraying of, 147. 
Varieties of, 146. 
Diagnosis of diseases of farm 

livestock, 270. 
Dips, Coal tar, 276. 
Diseases of farm livestock, 
264. 
of farm livestock. Diagno- 
sis of, 270. 
of farm livestock, N o n - 

transmissible, 267. 
of farm livestock. Trans- 
missible, 265. 
Disk plows. 340. 
Distances, Table of, 382. 
Distillate oils as insecticide, 

91. 
Ditches, Construction of 
drainage, 15. 
for drainage. Open, 15. 



Ditches, Locating of drain- 
age, 15, 
Dorset sheep, 224. 
Dosage of medicines for farm 

livestock, 273. 
Draft-horse class, 190. 
Drags, Soil, 342. 
Drainage, Beneficial effects 
of soil, 13. 

Cost of soil, 15. 

laterals, 17. 

mains, 17. 

Open ditches for, 15. 

Soil, 13. 

submains, 17. 
Dried blood as fertilizer, 31. 
Drill, Grain, 345. 
Drone bees, 339. 
Dry measure table, 381. 
Dual-purpose type of cattle, 

Description of, 211. 
Duroc-Jersey swine, 234. 
Dutch belted cattle, 202. 

E 

Eczema, 281. 

Epsom salts, as medicine for 
Uvestock, 276. 

Equipment for market gar- 
dening, 156. 
for truck farming, 162. 

Equivalents, How to find fer- 
tiUzer, 39. 
Table of data for comput- 
ing fertilizer, 40. 

Essex swine, 237. 

Ewes, Rations for, 262. 



Farcy, 281. 

Farm implements and ma- 
chinerv, Care of, 354. 

Uvestock, 178. 
Fat in feeds, 240. 
Feed, Fodder as, 242. 

Hay as. 241. 

on value of manure. Influ- 
ence of, 23. 

Root crops as, 243. 

Silage as, 242. 

Soiling crops as, 242. 

Straw as, 242. 



INDEX 



Feedstuffs, Table of dry mat- 
ter and nutrients in 
American, 249. 
Feeders and stockers, 215. 
Feeding, livestock, 238. 

standards, 243. 

standards, Wolfif-Lehmann, 
245. 
Feeds. Ash in, 239. 

Carbohydrates in, 249. 

Classification of, 241. 

Composition of, 238. 

Fat in, 240. 

Protein in, 239. 

Water in, 239. 
Fertilizer analysis, mislead- 
ing methods of stating, 
37. 

equivalents,' How to find, 
39. 

equivalents, Table of data 
for computing, 40. 

Fish, 32. 

laws. State, 36. 
Fertilizers, Commercial, 30. 

Facts about, 39. 

Vegetable potash, 36. 
Field peas as hay and pasture 

crops, 81 
Fish fertilizer, 32. 
Fodder as feed, 242. 
Foot and mouth disease, 281. 

rot, 281. 
Foul in foot, 282. 
Founder, 282. 
French Canadian cattle, 203. 

coach horses, 185. 
Fruit culture, 89. 
Fungicides, 91. 
Furrow drains, 16. 



Galloway cattle, 209. 
Galls, 282. 
Gang plows, 340. 
Garbage tankage, 32. 
Garden, Arrangement of 
home, 166. 

Crops for home, 165. 

Glass for home, 165. 

produce. Markets for mar- 
ket, 159. 



Garden, Site for home, 
164. 
Size for home, 164. 
Soil for home, 164. 
Soil improvement for 

home, 165. 
Tillage for home, 166. 
Tools for home, 167. 
Gardening, Equipment for 
market, 156. 
Site for market, 155. 
Garget, 282. 

Gasoline as medicine for live- 
stock, 276. 
Gentian root, as medicine for 

livestock, 276. 
German coach horses, 185. 
Gestation table for farm live- 
stock, 301. 
Gidd, 282. 
Glanders, 283. 

Gooseberries, Pruning of, 
153. 
Spraying of, 154. 
Varieties of, 152. 
Grade in underdrains. Ob- 
taining uniform, 21. 
Grain binders, 349. 
drills, 345. 
harvester and thrasher, 

350. 
headers, 350. 
Grapes, pruning of, 122. 
Spraying of, 124. 
Training of, 122. 
Varieties of, 117. 
Grasses as hay and pasture 

crop, 66. 
Grease, 283. 
heels, 283. 
Green manure, 27. 

manure, Alfalfa as, 29. 
manure, Canada field peas 

as, 27. 
manure, Clovers as, 27. 
manure, Cowpeas as, 28. 
manure. Soybeans as, 28. 
manure, Supplying of, 29. 
manure. Vetch as, 28. 
manure, Weeds as, 27. 
manuring. Effects of, 29. 
Guernsey cattle, 198. 



INDEX 



H 



Hackney horses, 184. 
Hair and wool waste, as fer- 
tilizer, 32. 
Hampshire sheep, 223. 

swine, 238. 
Hand as a unit of measure- 
ment, 178. 
Harrowing, 51. 
Harrows. 340. 

Harvesting of corn, Table of 
f]rst, general, and last 
planting and, 64. 

of home garden crops, 167. 
Hay and pasture crops, 66. 

as feed, 241. 

loaders, 349. 

rakes, 348. 

stackers, 348. 

tedders, 349. 
Heaves, 283. 
Hellebore as an insecticide, 

90. 
Hereford cattle, 208. 
Hessian fly. Combating of, 55. 
Hog cholera, 283. 

List of parts of, 230. 

manure. Care of, 25. 
Hogs, Rations for bacon, 260. 

Rations for fattening. 250. 
Holstein-Friesian cattle. 200. 
Honey bees. Races of, 337. 
Hoof and horn meal, 32. 
Hoose. 284. 

Horn and hoof meal. 32. 
Horse class. Carriage-, 193. 

class. Chunk-, 192. 

class. Draft, 190. 

class. Road. 194. 

class, Saddle,- 195. 

class. Wagon-, 192. 

List of parts of, 179. 

manure, 21. 

manure. Care of, 25. 
Horses, American saddle, 181. 

American trotter, 183. 

Arab, 178. 

Belgian, 188. 

Breeds of, 178. 

Cleveland bay, 186. 

Clydesdale, 187. 

French coach, 185. 



Horses, German coach, 185. 
Hackney, 184. 
Market classes of, 189. 
Morgan, 182. 
Orloff trotter, 184. 
Percheron, 186. 
Rations for draft, 255. 
Rations for driving, 255. 
Rations for saddle, 256. 
Score card for heavy mar- 
ket, 289. 
Score card for light mar- 
ket, 292. 
Shire, 188. 
Suffolk, 189. 
Table of market classes of, 

191. « 
Thoroughbred, 180. 
Yorkshire coach, 186. 
Hoven, 284. 
Humus in soil, 10. 
Hydrometer readings. Table 
of comparison of Baum6 
and specific gravity, 
366. 
Hydrostatic water in soil. 6. 
Hygroscopic water in soil, 6. 



Implements and machinery. 
Care of farm, 354. 
and machinery. Farm, 339. 

Improvement, Soil, 13. 

Indigestion, in farm live- 
stock, 285. 

Inorganic ingredients of 
soil, 1. 

Insecticides for fruit plants, 
89. 

Intestinal worms, 285. 

Iodine, as medicine for live- 
stock. Tincture of, 276. 

Italian rye grass as hay and 
pasture crop, 70. 



Jamaica ginger, as medicine 
for livestock, 276. 

Jerusalem artichokes, 84. 

Jersey cattle, 198. 

Johnson grass as hay and 
pasture crop, 70. 



INDEX 



Kafir com as hay and pasture 
crop, 73. 

Kainite as fertilizer, 35. 

Kentucky blue grass as hay 
and pasture crop, 67 

Kerosene as medicine for live- 
stock, 276. 

Kerosene emulsion as an in- 
secticide, 91. 

Kohlrabi, 83. 



Lambs, Rations for, 263. 
Lard-type swine, 231. 
Large Yorkshire swine, 237. 
Laterals, Distance between 

drainage, 18. 
Laudanum as a medicine 

for livestock, 277. 
Leather meal as fertilizer, 

33. 
Legal weights per bushel. 

Table of, 368-377. 
Legumes as hay and pasture 

crops, 73. 
Leicester sheep, 226. 
Lettuce, 171. 

Lice in farm livestock, 28.5. 
Lime, Methods of determining 
if soils need, 42. 
on soils. Effect of, 41. 
sulphur as a fungicide, 92. 
sulphur as an insecticide, 

90. 
to soil. Application of, 44. 
to soil. When to apply, 46. 
water as medicine for live- 
stock, 277. 
Liming of soils, 41. 
Lincoln sheep, 226. 
Linear measiire table, 378. 
Linseed meal as fertilizer, 33. 
oil as r-^dicine for live- 
stock, Riw, 277. 
Liquid measure table, 381. 
List of market classes of 
sheep, 229. 
of parts of beef animal, 205. 
of parts of dairy animal, 

197. 
of parts of hog, 230. 



List of parts of horse, 179. 

of parts of sheep, 217. 
Listers, Com, 346. 
Livestock, Administration 
of medicines to farm, 
273. 
Diagnosis of diseases of 

farm, 270. 
Diseases of farm, 265. 
Dosage of medicines for 

farm, 273. 
Farm, 178. 
feeding, 238. 
Gestation table for farm, 

301. 
Medicines for farm, 272. 
Non-transmis.ible diseases 

of farm, 266. 
Sanitation of farm, 267. 
Transmissible diseases of 
. farm, 265. 
Location for bee-keeping, 333. 
Location for truck farm, 160. 
Lockjaw, 288. 

London purple as an insect- 
icide. 90. 
Long ton weight table, 380. 
Lump jaw, 278. 

M 

Machinery and implements, 

Farm, 339. 
Machines and implements. 

Care of farm, 354. 
Maggots in farm livestock, 

285. 
Mammoth red clover as hay 

and pasture crop, 74. 
Mange, 285. 
Mangel wurzels, 82. 
Manure, Alfalfa as green, 29. 
Canada field peas as green, 

27. 
Care of cattle, 25. 
Care of hog, 25. 
Care of horse, 25. 
Care of poultry, 26. 
Care of sheep 26. 
Cattle, 22. 
Clovers as green, 27. 
Cowpeas as green, 28. 
Green. 27. 



INDEX 



Manure, Horse, 21. 

Influence of feed on value 

of, 23. 
Poultrv, 23. 
Sheep,' 23. 

Soybeans as green, 28. 
Spreaders, 353. 
Stable, 21. 
Swine, 23. 
Vetch as green, 28. 
Mares, Rations for, 256. 
Market classes of cattle, 212, 
213. 
classes of horses, 189. 
classes of sheep, 228. 
garden produce. Markets 

for, 159. 
gardening. Equipment for, 

156. 
gardening, Site for, 155. 
Markets for market - garden 

produce, 159. 
Meadow fescue as hay and 
pasture crop, 69. 
foxtail as hay and pasture 
crop, 67. 
Meal as fertilizer, Hoof and 
horn, 32. 
as fertilizer. Leather,, 33. 
as fertilizer. Linseed, 33. 
Measures of extension, 378. 

of volume, 383. 
Medicine to farm livestock. 
Administration of, 273. 
for farm livestock, 272. 
for farm livestock. Dosage 
of, 273. 
Meningitis, Cerebrospinal, 

280. 
Mercury as medicine for 
livestock. Bichloride of, 
276. 
Metric equivalents, 381. 
Milk, Acid-forming bacteria 
in. 318. 
Bacteria in, 315. 
Boiled, 317. 
Cleanliness in handling, 

316. 
constituents, 313. 
Cooling of, 316. 
fever, 286. 



Milk, Odors in, 320. 
Pasteurized, 317. 
Pathogenic bacteria in, 

319. 
regulations. City, 327. 
standard, Canadian, 329. 
standards, State, 327. 
standards. United States, 

325. 
vStoring of, 316. 
test, The Babcock, 321. 
Testing of, .321. 
Use of preservatives in, 

317. 
Weighing of, 321. 
Milkers and springers, 217. 
Millets as hay and pasture 

crop, 71. 
Minerals in soil, 8. 
Miscible oil as an insecticide, 

90. 
Misleading methods of stat- 
ing fertilizer analyses, 
37. 
Morgan horses, 182. 
Mowers, 317. 
Mule-foot swine, 235. 
Muriate of potash as fertili- 
zer, 35. 
Mutton sheep, 218. 

N 

Navel ill, 286. 

Nitrate of soda as fertilizer, 

30. 
Nitrogen in soil, 9. 
Non-transmissible diseases of 

farm livestock, 267. 
Nutritive ratio, 244. 

O 

Oat grass as hay and pasture 
crop. Tall, 69. 

smut, Treatment of, 58. 
Oats, 56. 

Varieties of, 57. 
Objects of bee keeping. 331. 
Odors in milk. 320. 
Onions, 172. 

Orchard grass as hay and 
pasture crop, 68, 69. 



INDEX 



Organic ingredients of soil, 1. 
Orloflf trotter horses, 184. 
Oxford down sheep, 223. 



Paris green as an insecticide, 

89. 
Parsnips, 84, 173. 
Parthenogenesis in bees, 339. 
Pasteurized milk, 317. 
Pasture crops. Hay and, 66. 
Pathogenic bacteria in milk, 

319. 
Peaches, Pruning of, 107. 
Spraying of, 109. 
Varieties of, 103. 
Pears, Pruning of, 115. 
Spraying of, 115. 
Varieties of, 110. 
Peas, 172. 

Percheron horses, 186. 
Perennial rye grass as hay 

and pasture crop, 70. 
Phosphates as fertilizer. Acid, 
34. 
as fertilizer. Rock, 34. 
Phosphorus in soil, 9. 
Pigs, Rations for, 259. 
Plant food in soil, 9. 
Planters, Corn, 345. 
Cotton, 345. 
Potato, 346. 
Seedling, 347. 
Planting and harvesting of 
corn, Table of first, 
general, and last, 64. 
and harvesting of wheat. 
Table of first, general, 
and last, 54. 
of home garden crops, 167. 
Plants required to set an acre 
of ground at given dis- 
tance. Table of number 
of, 363. 
Plowing, 49. 
Plows, Beam, 339. 
Disk, 340. 
Gang, 340. 
Subsoil, 340. 
Sulky, 340. 
Walking, 339. 
Plums, pruning of, 130 



Plums, Spraying of, 131. 

Varieties of, 126. 
Poland-China swine, 233. 
Polled Durham cattle. 207. 
Potash as fertilizer. Muriate 
of, 35. 

as fertilizer. Sulphate of, 
36. 

as fertilizer. Vegetable, 36. 

as medicine for live-stock. 
Nitrate of, 277. 
Potassium in soil, 10. 

sulphide as a fungicide, 
92. 
Potato diggers, 351. 

planters, 346. 
Potatoes, 81, 176. 

Enemies and diseases of, 
83 

Varieties of, 82. 
Poultry manure, 23. 

manure, Care of, 26. 
Preservatives in milk. Use 

of, 317. 
Profits in bee keeping, 335. 
Protein in feeds, 239. 
Pruning of apples, 100. 

of blackberries, 146. 

of cherries, 135. 

of currants, 150. 

of dewberries, 147. 

of gooseberries, 153. 

of grapes, 122. 

of peaches, 107. 

of pears, 115. 

of plums, 130. 

of quinces, 138. 

of ra.spberries, 145. 
Pumace as fertilizer. Castor, 
33. 



Quack grass as hay and pas- 
ture crop, 71. 
Quarter crack, 286. 
Queen bees, 337. 
Quinces, Pruning of, 138. 
Spraying of, 138. 
Varieties of, 136. 
Quinine as a medicine for 
livestock, 277. 



INDEX 



Rabies. 287. 

Races of honey bees, 337. 

Rachitis, 287. 

Radishes, 173, 

Rambouillet sheep, 221. 

Raspberries, Pruning of, 145. 

Spraying of, 147. 

Varieties of, 143. 
Ratio, Nutritive, 244. 
Ration for draft horses, 255. 

for stallion, 257. 
Rations, Balanced, 243, 

for bacon hogs, 260. 

for brood sows, 261. 

for dairy cattle, 257. 

for driving horses, 256. 

for ewes, 262. 

for fattening cattle, 259. 

for fattening hogs, 260. 

for herd boars, 260. 

for lambs, 263. 

for mares, 256. 

for pigs, 259. 

for saddle horses, 256. 
Raw bone as fertilizer, 33. 
Reaper, Self -rake, 350. 
Red clover as hay and pas- 
ture crop, 74. 

polled cattle, 212. 

top as hay and pasture 
crop, 67. 
Rheumatism, 287. 
Rhubarb, 16S. 
Rickets, 287. 
Ringworm, 287. 
Road-horse class, 194. 
Rock phosphates as fertil- 
izer, 34. 
Rollers, 341. 
Rolling, 50. 
Root crops, 82. 

crops as feed, 2-:'3. 
Rutabagas, 83. 
Rye, 59. 

grass, as hay and pasture 
crop, 70. 
S 
Saddle-horse class, 195. 
Saltpeter as medicine for 
livestock, 277. 



Sand crack, 286. 

Sanitation for farm livestock, 

267. 
Scab, Sheep, 285. 
Scabies in sheep, 286. 
Score card for bacon-type 
barrows, 289. 
card for dairy cattle, 294. 
card for fat-type barrows, 

300. 
card for heavy market 

horses, 289. 
card for light market 

horses, 292. 
card for market beef cat- 
tle, 295. 
card for mutton sheep, 296. 
card for wool sheep, 298. 
Scours, 288. 
Scratches, 283. 

Seed mixtures for meadows, 
362. 
mixtures for pastures, 362. 
required per acre. Table 
of quantity of, 359. 
Seeders, Broadcasting, 344. 
Seedling planters, 347. 
Seeds to germinate. Table of 
average time required 
for garden, 366. 
Self -boiled lime -sulphur as a 
fungicide, 92. 
rake reaper, 350. 
Sheep, American merino, 219. 
Breeds of, 217. 
Cheviot, 225. 
Cotswold, 227. 
Delaine merino, 220. 
Dorset, 224. 
Hampshire, 223. 
Leicester, 226. 
Lincoln, 226. 
List of parts of, 217. 
manure, 23. 
manure. Care of, 26. 
Market classes of, 228. 
Mutton, 218. 
Oxford down, 223. 
Rambouillet, 221. 
Score carB for mutton, 

296. 
Score card for wool, 298. 



INDEX 



Sheep, Shropshire, 222. 

Southdown, 221. 

Suffolk, 225. 

Wool, 218. 
Shire horses, 188. 
Shorthorn cattle, 206. 
Shropshire sheep, 222. 
Silage as feed, 242. 
Simmenthal cattle, 203. 
Site for home garden, 164. 

for market gardening, 155. 
Size of home garden, 164. 
Slag as fertilizer. Basic, 35. 
Small Yorkshire swine, 236. 
Smooth brome grass as hay 

and pasture crop, 68. 
Smut on barley, Treatment 
of, 59. 

on wheat. Treatment of 
loose, 53. 

on wheat. Treatment of 
stinking, 53. 

Treatment of oat, 58. 
Soda as fertilizer, Nitrate of, 

30. 
Soil aeration, 47. 

Air in, 7. 

Bacteria in, 11. 

by tillage. Mellowing of, 
48. 

by tillage, Pulverization 
of, 46. 

Chemical changes in, 8. 

Classes of water in, 6. 

Color of, 5. 

drainage, 13. 

Effect of sunshine on 
plowed, 47. 

for home garden, 164. 

improvement, 13. 

improvement for home gar- 
den, 165. 

by tillage. Increase of water- 
holding capacity of, 47. 

Inorganic ingredients of, 1. 

Minerals in, 8. 

Movement of water in, 6. 

Need of water in, 5. 

Organic ingredients of, 2. 

particles, Size of, 1. 

Plant food in, 9. 

Properties of, 1. 



Soil temperature, 7. 

Types of, 2. 

Weight of, 4. 

When to apply lime to, 46. 
Soiling crops, 85. 

crops as feed, 242. 

systems, Tables of, 86-88. 
Soils, Application of lime to, 
44. 

for truck farming, 161. 

Liming of, 41. 
Sorghum as hay and pasture 

crop, 71. 
Southdown sheep, 221. 
Sows, Rations for brood, 261. 
Soybeans as green manure, 
28. 

as hay and pasture crop, 79. 
Spinach, 173. 
Sprayers, 353. 
Spraying of apples, 101. 

of blackberries, 147. 

of cherries, 135. 

of dewberries, 147. 

of gooseberries, 154. 

of grapes, 124. 

of peaches, 109. 

of pears, 115. 

of plums, 131. 

of quinces, 138. 

of raspberries, 147. 

of strawberries, 142. 
Sprays for fruit plants, 89. 
Springers and milkers, 217. 
Square measure table, 379. 
Squashes, 176. 
Stable manure, 21. 
Stallions, Rations for, 257. 
Standards, Feeding. 243. 
State fertilizer laws, 36. 

.Tiilk standards, 327. 
Steamed bone as fertilizer, 34. 
SteriHty in farm livestock, 279. 
Stockers and feeders, 215. 
Stomach worms, 285. 
Storing of milk, 316. 
Straw as feed, 242. 
Strawberries, Spraying of, 
142. 

Varieties of, 139. 
Street sweepings, as fertilizer, 
33. 



INDEX 



Subsoil, 1. 

plows, 340. 
Suffolk horses, 189. 

sheep, 225. 
Sugar beets, 83. 
Sulky plows, 340. 
Sulphate of ammonia, 31. 

of iron as medicine for live- 
stock, 275. 

of potash as fertilizer, 36. 
Sulphur as medicine for live- 
stock, 277. 

dust as a fungicide, 92. 
Sxinshine on plowed soil. Ef- 
fect of, 47. 
Sunstroke in farm livestock, 

288. 
Superphosphate for fertilizer, 

34. 
Surveyor's square measure 

table, 379. 
Sussex cattle, 210. 
Sweet com, 175. 
Swine, Bacon-type, 231. 

Berkshire, 232. 

Cheshire, 236. 

Chester White, 234. 

Duroc-Jersey, 234. 

Essex, 237. 

fever, 288. 

Hampshire, 238. 

Lard type, 231. 

Large Yorkshire, 237. 

manure, 23. 

Mule-foot, 235. 

Poland-China, 233. 

Small Yorkshire, 236. 

Tam worth, 237. 

Victoria, 236. 
Symptomatic anthrax, 279. 



Table, Apothecaries' fluid 
measure, 381. 

Apothecaries' weight, 
380 

Avoirdupois weight, 
380. 

Cubic measure, 379. 

Dry measure, 381. 

for farm livestock. Gesta- 
tion, 301. 



Table, Linear measure, 378. 

Liquid measure, 381. 

Long ton weight, 380. 

of average time required 
for garden seeds to ger- 
minate, 366. 

of capacity of circular silos 
and quantity of silage 
to be fed to lower sur- 
face two inches daily, 367. 

of comparison of Baum6 
and specific gravity hy- 
drometer readings, 366. 

of data for computing fer- 
tilizer equivalents, 40. 

of distances, 382. 

of dry matter and nutrients 
in American feed stuflfs, 
249. 

of first, general, and last 
planting and harvest- 
ing of corn, 64. 

of first, general, and last 
planting and harvest- 
ing of wheat, 54. 

of legal weights per bushel, 
368-377. 

of market classes of horses, 
191. 

of New England complete 
soiling system for 20 
cows, 86. 

of New Jersey complete 
soiling system for 20 
cows, 88. 

of number of plants re- 
quired to set an acre of 
ground at given distance, 
363. 

of partial soiling system 
for 20 cows, 85. 

of quantity of seed required 
per acre, 359. 

of time required for matu- 
rity of different vegetable 
crops from seeding, 366. 

of varieties of corn grown 
for silage in different 
zones of the U. S., 63. 

of Wisconsin complete soil- 
ing system for 20 cows, 
87. 



INDEX 



Table, Square measure, 379. 
burveyor's square meas- 
ure, 379. 
Troy weight, 380. 
Tall oat grass as hay and pas- 
ture crop, 69. 
Tam worth swine, 237. 
Tankage, 31. 

Garbage, 32. 
Temperature, Soil, 7. 
Teosinte as a hay and pas- 
ture crop, 73. 
Testing of milk, 321. 
Tetanus, 288. 

Texas blue grass as hay and 
pasture crop, 71. 
fever, 288. 
Thoroughbred horses, 180. 
Thrashers, Bean and pea, 352. 
Thrashing machines, Grain, 

352. 
Thrush, 289. 
Tile to use for underdrains, 

Size of, 17. 
Tillage, Benefits of, 46. 
of home garden, 166. 
Pulverization of soil by, 46. 
Time required in bee keep- 
ing, 336. 
Timothy as hay and pasture 

crop, 66. 
Tobacco, 84. 

extracts and decoctions as 
insecticides, 91. 
Tomatoes, 177. 
Tools for home garden, 167. 
Training of grapes, 122. 
Transmissible diseases of 

farm livestock, 265. 
Troy weight table, 380. 
Truck-farm crops, 153. 
farm, Climate for, 161. 
farm, Location for, 160. 
farming. Equipment for, 

162. 
farming, Labor for, 161. 
farming, Soils for, 161. 
Tuberculosis of farm live- 
stock, 289. 
Turnips, 83, 174. 
Turpentine as medicine for 
Hvestock, 277. 



U 

Underdrains, 17. 

arrangement of, 17. 

Depth of, 19. 

Excavating for, 20. 

Laying tile for, 20. 

Obtaining a uniform grade 
in, 21. 

Size of tiles to use for, 17. 
United States milk standards, 
325. 

V 
Varieties of apples, 93. 

of blackberries, 146. 

of cherries, 131. 

of corn, 60. 

of currants, 149. 

of dewberries, 146. 

of gooseberries, 152. 

of grapes, 117, 

of oats, 57. 

of peaches, 103, 

of pears, 110. 

of potatoes, 82. 

of plums, 126. 

of quinces, 136. 

of raspberries, 143. 

of strawberries, 139. 

of wheat, 52. 
Veal calves, 216. 
Vegetable crops. Half-hardy, 
174. 

crops. Hardy, 168. 

crops. Tender, 176. 

potash fertilizers, 36. 
Velvet grass as hay and 

pasture crop, 71. 
Verminous bronchitis, 284. 
Vetch as green manure, 28. 
Vetches as hay and pasture 

crop, 80. 
Victoria swine, 236. 
Volume, Measures of, 383. 

W 

Wagon-horse class, 192. 

Walking plows, 339. 

Water-holding capacity of 
soil. Increase of, by till- 
age, 47. 
in feeds, 239. 



INDEX 



Water in soil, Capillary, 6. 
in soil, Classes of, 6. 
in soil, Hydrostatic, 6. 
in soil, Hygroscopic, 6 
in soil. Movement of, 6. 
in soil, Need of, 5 
Weeds as green manure, 27 
by tillage, Destruction of, 
49. 
Weeders, 344. 
Weighing of milk, 321. 
Wheat, Chinch bug on, 55. 
Hessian fly on, 55. 
Table of first, general, and 
last planting and har- 
vesting of, 54. 
Treatment of loose smut 

on, 53. 
Treatment of stinking smut 
on, 53. 



Wheat, Varieties of, 52. 

White clover as hay and pas- 
ture crop, 76. 

Whiskey as medicine for live- 
stock, 277. 

Windrowers, 348. 

Wolff-Lehmann feeding stand- 
ards, 245. 

Wool and hair waste, 32. 
sheep, 218. 

Wood ashes as fertilizer, 35. 

Worker bees, 338. 



Yorkshire coach horses, 186. 



Zones in the United States, 
Com, 61. 



The Farmer's Handbook 



PROPERTIES OF SOIL 

Soil and Subsoil.— 5oi7 is that part of the earth's 
surface in which plants, by means of their roots, may 
or do find nourishment and a place in which to grow. 
To distinguish the different parts of the soil, the terms 
surface soil and subsoil are employed. Surface soil, as 
the name implies, is soil at or near the surface of the 
ground — that portion usually subjected to tillage; 
subsoil is soil that lies beneath the surface soil. Surface 
soil is usually darker in color than subsoil, due to the 
presence of humus. 

Inorganic Soil Ingredients.— The inorganic ingredients, 
or rock particles, of soil are classified according to size 
into three divisions known as sand, clay, and silt. 
Sand is made up of larger soil particles than clay or 
silt. In nearly all soils a certain amount of sand is 
present. The quantity in an area of soil influences its 
character to a marked degree. For example, a soil con- 
taining relatively few sand particles is harder to work 
with tillage implements than one containing a larger 
number of sand particles. 

The smallest particles of soil are known as clay. They 
are so small that when rubbed between the fingers no 
gritty feeling is noticeable. A mass of clay particles 
is usually gray in color. A familiar example of clay 
is the material used for the making of brick and tile. 

The particles of soil that are finer than the finest sand 
but larger than those that make up clay are known as 
silt. Particles of silt are darker in color and less 
angular in shape than particles of sand. 

1 



2 PROPERTIES OF SOIL 

Organic Soil Ingredients.— The animal and vegetable 
matter of soil forms what is termed humus, which is 
partly decomposed organic matter. The proportion of 
humus in soil greatly influences its crop-producing 
power. Other conditions being favorable, a soil rich 
in humus is fertile, and one poor in humus is not fertile. 
Soils rich in humus are, as a rule, dark in color, and 
those poor in humus are light in color. Humus is re- 
tentive of water, and for this reason soils rich in this 
material are usually moist. If an area of soil is treated 
with a liberal quantity of humus-forming material, 
stable manure for example, the soil will become more 
compact, more retentive of moisture, darker in color, 
and more fertile, all of which are desirable soil qualities. 

Types of Soil.— Soils are designated according to the 
proportion of rock particles of certain size that they 
contain; or, if they are nearly deficient in rock particles, 
according to the proportion of vegetable matter they 
contain. For example, a soil made up largely of sand 
is known as a sandy soil; one in which the particles 
are nearly all silt is a silty soil, and one largely of 
clay is a clay soil. Soils that are largely organic 
matter are known as peat soils or as muck soils. The term 
loam is used to designate soils that are made up of at 
least three of the four ingredients— sand, silt, clay, 
and humus. Loams are named in accordance with their 
predominating-sized mineral particles. For example, a 
loam largely of sand is a sandy loam; one made up 
practically of clay is a clay loam; and one rich in silt 
is a silty loam. 

Sandy soils are easy to work but are poor in plant- 
food, and are not retentive of water. However, 
they are what are known as quick soils, that is, they 
produce crops quickly after seed is planted or young 
plants are set out. 

Sandy loams and light sandy loams allow water and 
plant-food to pass through them quickly, but, as a rule, 
they are lacking in humus and also in fertility. They 



PROPERTIES OF SOIL 3 

are, however, easy to work, become warm quickly, and 
will produce early crops of good quality, provided they 
are kept supplied with large quantities of organic mat- 
ter. Still, they are not particularly desirable for 
cropping on account of the expense necessary to keep 
them in a desirable state of fertility. 

Regular sandy loams are light in color and contain 
a comparatively small proportion of humus, but they 
are easy to work, become warm early in spring, and 
are quick soils when vegetable matter is added in liberal 
quantities. They are very acceptable soils for vegetable 
growing, but on account of the expense of keeping 
them fertile, they are not profitable for general farming. 

Medium sandy loams are often termed medium loams. 
Compared with regular sandy loams, medium loams are 
more compact, darker in color, more retentive of water, 
and a little more productive, but they do not produce* 
crops so quickly. They are excellent soils for regular 
farm crops, such as wheat, corn, etc., but, on account of 
their lack for quickness, they are not so much desired 
for vegetable growing as are the regular sandy loams. 

Clay soils are hard to work, sticky when wet, exceed- 
ingly retentive of water, and slow in producing crops, 
but they are usually fairly rich in plant-food. They are 
better adapted to the growing of regular farm crops 
than to vegetable production. 

Clay loams are generally designated as medium clay 
loams and heavy clay loams. Medium clay loams are 
usually dark in color, fairly compact in texture, and 
retentive of water. They are rather difficult to work, 
and, in addition, are cool and late, which qualities 
make them unsuitable for vegetable growing. However, 
they are acceptable for many of the regular farm crops. 

Heavy clay loams are more compact, more retentive 
of water, and more tenacious than the medium clay 
loams. Considering these facts, thej' are not suitable for 
vegetable growing, but if liberally supplied with humus 
they are desirable for some forms of general farming. 



4 PROPERTIES OF SOIL 

Peat is formed by the partial decay of vegetation under 
water. It is nearly all vegetable matter, containing, as 
a rule, not more than 25% of rock particles. If drained 
of surplus water and the vegetation allowed to rot for 
a long time, peaty soils can be used for cropping. 

Muck soils differ from peaty soils in the method of 
formation. They are formed where vegetable matter is 
under water for a time and is then successively exposed 
to air and to water. They usually contain a larger 
percentage of rock particles than is found in peat soils 
and are usually swampy, but after being drained often 
become exceedingly productive. Muck soils are excellent 
for celery and onions, but for general cropping they are 
not desirable. 

Soils containing a large proportion of stone, varying 
in diameter from J4 in. to 6 in., are termed gravelly 
soils. Of these there are several kinds, to which such 
terms as gravelly sandy soil, gravelly loamy soil, or 
gravelly clay soil are applied. Gravelly sandy soils 
contain large quantities of coarse sand and are of little 
use for crop production. Gravelly loam soils are suitable 
for general farming, but on account of the presence of 
gravel, which interferes with the working of land for 
vegetable crops, they are not particularly suitable for 
gardening. Gravelly clay soils are made up largely of 
clay in addition to the gravel. They have about the 
same characteristics as clay soils, and are more suitable 
for general farming than for vegetable growing. 

Stony soils are similar to gravelly soils, except that they 
contain many large stones. They are not well adapted 
for vegetable growing, largely on account of the diffi- 
culty of the tillage operations, but for general farming 
and for tree fruit culture they are often very acceptable. 

Soil Weight.— The weight of soil varies considerably; 
it is influenced by the size of the particles and by the 
proportion of humus and of water the soil contains. A 
soil composed largely of coarse particles is heavier than 
one made up principally of small particles. This is 



PROPERTIES OF SOIL 5 

because in a fine-grained soil there is more combined 
air space than in a coarse-grained soil, air, of course, 
being lighter than soil particles. 

The proportion of humus in a soil influences the 
weight to a marked degree. The humus is lighter than 
the soil particles; therefore, the larger the proportion 
of humus, the less is the weight of the soil, and vice 
versa. Peat or muck soils are about one-half the weight 
of sandy soils. Surface soils that have been treated 
liberally with stable manure are, on account of the 
large proportion of humus they contain, lighter in 
weight than the same types of soil that have not been 
treated with manure. 

An increase in the moisture content of a soil increases 
its weight. Both water and air occupy the spaces 
around the soil particles; if water is added to soil, it 
displaces some of the air, which is lighter than water, 
and the result is an increase in the weight of the given 
quantity of soil. 

Color of Soil.— The color of soil is influenced by its 
composition. For example, soil that is made up largely 
of white sand particles is light in color; soil of yellow 
clay particles is yellow in color. Humus, also, in- 
fluences the color of a soil. Since humus is dark in 
color, if it is present in a soil in large quantities, the 
soil is likely to be dark in color. The proportion of 
water in a soil generally has an influence on the color. 
Most soils are darker in color when wet than when 
dry, but sandy soils change color but little when 
they become wet. 

Need of Water in Soil.— Water in soil is absolutely 
necessary for proper plant growth. In fact, a soil 
without sufficient water for the needs of plants is a 
desert. The quantity of water taken up from the soil 
by plants is exceedingly large. Over 90% of cabbage 
and lettuce is water; green corn plants are nearly 80% 
water; clover and potatoes are also about 80% water. 
As all the water in a plant comes directly from the 



(^ PROPERTIES OF SOIL 

soil, it is easy to see that a soil to produce large crops 
must be liberally supplied with water. 

Classes of Water in Soil.— The water in soil is 
grouped into three classes known as hydrostatic water, 
capillary zvafer, and hygroscopic water. Below the sur- 
face ot the soil, water that maintains a given level 
is encountered at a distance that depends on the 
quantity of water in the soil at the place where the obser- 
vation is made. This standing water is the so-called 
hydrostatic water. It is known also as drainage water 
and as ground water. 

Capillary water is that which soaks through the soil 
in the same manner that oil is carried through a lamp 
wick. This water passes in any direction — upwards, 
sideways, or downwards. The soaking of water through 
soil is caused by what is known as capillary attraction; 
hence, the season for the term capillary water. 

Hygroscopic water is that absorbed by the soil 
particles and which can be driven out of the soil only 
by excessi/e heat. It does not move from place to 
place in soil like drainage water, and the only way 
it can be removed is by heating a quantity of soil to a 
temperature sufficient to drive the moisture away in the 
form of vapor. 

Movement of Soil Water.— Water in soil moves about 
from place to place as a result of two forces; one, the 
attraction of gravity that draws water downwards, and 
the other, capillary attraction, that causes water to 
pass in any direction from one part of soil to another. 
The movement of water downwards is known as perco- 
lation. Water in percolating through soil carries with 
it to depths below the reach of plant roots many of the 
soluble plant-foods with which it comes in contact. The 
removal of plant-food from soil by the percolation of 
water is known as leaching, and any soil from which 
plant-food leaches rapidly is known as leachy soil. 

The movement of water through soil by capillary at- 
traction is necessary for crop production. Plant roots 



PROPERTIES OF SOIL 7 

absorb capillary water and use it for the development of 
plants. In fact, no plant can thrive unless a plentiful 
supply of capillary water is available for use by its 
roots. The size of soil particles influences the rate at 
which capillary water travels. The coarser the particles, 
the more rapidly will water travel by capillary attrac- 
tion, but, in a coarse soil it will travel a shorter 
distance than in fine-grained soil. 

Air in Soil. — In a soil in which plants grow, air is as 
needful as water and plant-food. In fact, unless air is 
present in soil, seeds cannot germinate and there can 
be no plant growth. When drainage water fills all the 
spaces of a soil at or within a few inches of the surface 
of the ground, plants fail to grow simply because there 
is no air around the roots. The death of plants in a 
low, wet part of the field often results from a lack of 
air in the soil. The removal of surplus water by 
drainage is the remedy for such a condition. 

Air in soil is necessary also for the decay of organic 
matter in the formation of humus. A grass sod or a 
quantity of stable manure plowed under and left in a 
water-filled soil will not decay for years, but, if plowed 
under and left in a soil where air is present, it will 
decay in a few months. 

The presence of air in soil is necessary also to make 
possible chemical changes that liberate otherwise un- 
available plant-food. If such changes did not occur, 
the supply of available plant-food might soon become 
deficient. 

Soil Temperature. — Below a certain temperature seeds 
will not germinate nor plants make satisfactory growth. 
As soil is the medium in which seeds germinate and in 
which the roots of plants are imbedded, the proper 
degree of soil temperature is necessary for crop pro- 
duction. Different crops differ as to the best tem- 
perature for the sprouting of seeds and the growth of 
the plants, but from 75° to 100° F. is a good average 
temperature for most seeds. 



8 PROPERTIES OF SOIL 

The rapidity of the growth of a crop depends to a 
large extent on the temperature of the soil. With other 
conditions the same, crops will mature more quickly in 
a warm soil than in a cool soil. Soils that warm 
quickly and easily and retain their heat well, are, as a 
rule, more suitable for vegetable growing than those 
having less favorable temperature conditions. But, for 
grain growing, cooler soils are suitable. 

The lay of the land influences the amount of heat 
received by an area of soil. The more direct the rays 
of the sun strike the land's surface, the greater is the 
amount of heat received by the soil. A warm slope is 
preferable for vegetables and other early crops on 
account of the warming effect of the direct rays of the 
sun. For fruit growing, however, a cool slope is pre- 
ferred. This is because the fruit buds will be retarded, 
and thus they may escape injury from late spring 
frosts that are likely to occur. 

Minerals in Soil. — The most abundant rock material in 
soil is a hard compound known as silica, or quartz. It 
is abundant in rocks, and on account of its hardness 
it resists weathering longer than most other minerals. 
For this reason it is found so largely in soils. Nearly 
all sand grains are silica. In addition to silica, soils 
contain quantities of compounds known as alumina, 
lime, magnesia, potash, soda, phosphoric acid, nu- 
merous salts, and humus. Alumina and soda are 
present in relatively large quantities in clay. Lime 
and magnesia are found more abundantly in soils of 
limestone origin than in those derived from other 
sources. The quantities of other compounds in soil 
vary, but are small in comparison with silica. 

Chemical Changes in Soil.— Chemical changes are go- 
ing on constantly in soil. Complex compounds are being 
broken up into simpler ones or into elements, and 
simple ones are uniting to form those more complex. 
These changes are brought about largely by the action of 
oxygen, which produces decay, or what may be termed 



ROPERTIES OF SOIL 9 

slow combustion. Acids and alkalies in the soil also 
cause changes, and water in bringing materials into 
solution is responsible for many chemical changes. 
Bacteria, =ome forms of wKich live in the soil, are 
also responsible for many of the chemical changes that 
take place therein. The beneficial result of chemical 
changes is the liberation of plant-food. Much of tho 
plant-food in soil is not soluble in water and is therefore 
unavailable for use by the plants, but the constant 
changes that take place break up these unavailable plant- 
food compounds and convert the food they contain into a 
form that can be used by plants. 

Plant-Food in Soil. — The use made by plants of the 
chemical constituents of soil is for food. Research has 
shown that out of the eighty or more elements of the 
universe, only fourteen are taken up from the soil by 
plants for food, and, further, that the soil is never 
deficient in any of the plant-foods except four. This 
being the case, the farmer, gardener, and fertilizer manu- 
facturer concern themselves only with these four foods, 
which are the elements nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, 
and calcium. The last three of these are often spoken of 
as the mineral plant-food elements, on account of their 
being minerals. 

Nitrogen is a colorless gas that is abundant in the 
atmosphere. As a gas, however, plants cannot absorb it. 
To be available it must be in the form of a compound that 
is soluble in water. Nitrogen combines to form a variety 
of compounds, only a few of which are available as plant- 
food, and these compounds are easily leached from the 
soil. The terms nitrates, nitrites, and ammonia are the 
most common compounds containing nitrogen. 

Phosphorous is a solid; it forms the chief ingredient 
of match tips, and gives off a faint glow in the dark. 
To be available as a plant-food it must be part of a 
compound that is soluble in water. The term phosphoric 
acid is used to designate compounds containing phos- 
phorous in the form usable by a plant. 



10 PROPERTIES OF SOIL 

Potassium is an element similar in appearance and 
character to phosphorous. It burns easily and united with 
oxygen it forms a compound called potash. In the form 
of potash it is added to soil for use as plant-food. 

Calcium is one of the ingredients of lime. It is a 
yellow, solid element. In soil it is generally in the 
form of lime or limestone. As a plant-food, lime is not 
often deficient, but it is often applied to soil to correct 
an acid condition, to liberate unavailable plant-food, 
or for other beneficial effects. 

The quantity of plant-food in an area of soil depends 
somewhat on the size of the particles, on the origin and 
method of formation, on the proportion of humus therein, 
and on the manner in which the soil has been cropped. 
The larger the particles of a soil, the less likely is a 
large proportion of food to be present. This is because 
a light soil does not retain plant-food well. This 
deficiency of plant-food in sandy soils applies more to 
the nitrogen compounds than to the others, simply be- 
cause the nitrogen compounds leach away more rapidly. 
In a clay or a loamy soil there is likely to be more 
plant-food present, because the soil texture is better 
fitted to prevent its loss. 

The origin of a soil has more of an influence on the 
mineral plant-foods than on the nitrogen compounds, 
simply because the former are minerals and are con- 
tained in the rocks that have formed the soil. For 
example, in a soil formed from limestone, there is likely 
to be a plentiful supply of lime present, or in one 
formed from rocks rich in potassic or phosphatic com- 
pounds, there is likely to be plenty of potassium and 
phosphorous. 

The quantity of humus in a soil is of vast im- 
portance in regard to the quality of plant-food; humus 
not only contains plant-food but the decaying of animal 
and vegetable matter in the soil is instrumental in 
liberating much of the plant-food that would otherwise 
be unavailable. 



PROPERTIES OF SOIL 11 

By chemical analysis the quantity of plant-food of 
the different kinds can be told for a given quantity of 
soil. It would seem, therefore, that a chemical analysis 
would be of considerable benefit to a farmer. Such is 
not the case, however, for, although the chemist can tell 
how much plant-food is in a quantity of soil, he cannot 
tell about its availability, and it is the availability that 
the cultivator desires to know. Then, too, it is difficult 
to secure a sample of soil for analysis that is representa- 
tive of a field or other given area. Thus, a chemical 
analysis tells about the quantity of plant-food in the 
sample analyzed, but it may or may not tell about the 
quantity of available plant-food of a large area of the soil. 

Bacteria in Soil. — The presence of bacteria in soil is 
very necessary. In fact, were it not for soil bacteria 
there could be no crop production. One of the im- 
portant effects of bacterial action in soil is the decay 
of organic matter. The result of this decay is the for- 
mation of humus, and without humus there can be no 
plant growth. The rate at which bacteria change organic 
matter into humus depends largely on the condition 
of the soil and the climate. The climatic condition 
cannot be influenced by man, but the soil condition can 
be influenced by the way the soil is farmed. By fol- 
lowing the proper methods of cultivation, by rotating 
crops grown on the soil, and by manuring in the right 
way the organisms can be made more efficient than 
otherwise, and as a result the soil through the agency of 
humus becomes richer. 

The bacteria in the soil have much to do with the 
available nitrogen supply. As stated previously, nitro- 
gen is one of the plant-foods that may be deficient in 
soil. A large part of the nitrogen used by plants comes 
from the organic matter in the soil, in other words, 
from the humus. Nitrogen in the organic form, as it is 
called, is in compounds that are very complex, and in 
this condition it is not available for the plants. Certain 
forms of bacteria act on these complex compounds and 



12 PROPERTIES OF SOIL 

break ihem up into simpler ones. In this process of 
change at least three forms of bacteria are necessary. 
Each form has its own special work to do. The first 
changes the organic matter in a way that what is 
known as ammonia is formed; the second changes the 
ammonia into what are known as nitrites; and the 
third one changes nitrites into nitrates. Nitrates are 
soluble and are therefore available as plant-food. This 
whole process of change from the organic to the nitrate, 
or soluble, form is known as nitrification. This process 
is indeed of vast importance to agriculture. In fact, 
were it not for nitrification there would be no plant 
growth, for there would be practically no available 
nitrogen, and without nitrogen no plant can grow. 

Bacteria that live on the roots of legumes — clover, 
alfalfa, peas, beans, etc. — are of much importance in the 
enrichment of soil. On the roots of legumes that are 
growing under favorable conditions there are found 
knots of various sizes that are known as nodules, or 
tubercules. In these nodules live bacteria that are an 
aid to the plants. They are not parasites, for although 
they derive nourishment in the form of sugar and dis- 
solved salts from the plants, they benefit the plant by 
supplying nitrogen to it in an available form. These 
bacteria, unlike higher plants, have the power to use 
the nitrogen of the air and make it available for use 
by higher plants. After the plants have been removed 
the roots and the tubercules decay and as a result some 
of the nitrogen that has been taken from the air is 
left for subsequent crops. This is why a crop of clover 
or other legume acts as an enricher of the soil. 

If none of the bacteria peculiar to the legume that is 
planted on an area of soil is present in the soil, the 
legume will make a poor growth and no nodules will 
form. A few bacteria, however, will serve to inoculate 
a large area of soil. The bacteria multiply rapidly, and 
they are carried about by water and on dust particles 
by the wind. In a region where a given kind of legume, 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 13 

Red clover, for example, is grown abundantly, there are 
likely to be plenty of Red-clover bacteria in any area 
of soil to be planted. When a legume new to a region 
is to be planted, however, bacteria often need to be 
supplied. The most practical way of accomplishing this 
is to obtain soil from a field where the kind of legume 
it is desired to grow has been grown successfully, and 
scatter it on the field that is to be planted. The bac- 
teria will in this way be carried to the field, and when 
the legume plants become of sufficient size the bacteria 
will gain access to the roots, form nodules, and com- 
mence to be a benefit to the plants. This process of 
supplying certain kinds of bacteria to soil is known as 
soil inoculation. 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 



SOIL DRAINAGE 

Beneficial Effects of Drainage.— The beneficial effects 
that result from artificial drainage of farm lands are 
many and varied. The mechanical condition of wet 
ground is soon corrected when the land is drained, the 
soil assumes the light color characteristic of dry earth, 
and the air, the sun, the rain, tillage implements, soil 
bacteria, and plant-food are effective in a way that is 
impossible in wet soil. 

One of the principal benefits of drainage is that it 
lowers the water-table below the zone of plant roots. 
When the water-table is at or just below the surface 
of the soil so that roots of plants are submerged, plant 
life cannot long exist because of want of air. Also, 
under such a condition, many of the plant-food com- 
pounds that are dependent on air for their dissolution 
and consequent availability to plants are rendered of no 
value to crops. As soon as water-logged soil is drained 
aeration takes place, with the result that plant roots are 
enabled to obtain the necessary air and many of the 
plant-food compounds are rendered available to plants. 



14 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 

Another important effect of drainage is the warming 
of the soil. All wet soils are cold, and crops planted 
on them will not thrive. When the surplus free water 
is removed from land by drainage the soil invariably 
becomes warmer. 

A valuable effect of drainage is the mellowing of the 
soil. When a soil is properly drained, the change in 
its mechanical condition is most marked. The heavy 
character of the soil disappears, and the soil becomes 
light, pliable, and loose. On a well-drained and hence 
mellow soil, all tillage operations, including plowing, 
rolling, and harrowing, are carried on more easily than 
on a wet soil, and the planting and cultivating of crops 
is therefore accomplished more cheaply. Farm machinery 
also suffers less from wear and tear when it is used on 
a light, dry soil than when it is used on a heavy, wet soil. 

An important benefit of soil drainage is the pro- 
motion of bacterial action. Most kinds of bacteria 
cannot live in a water-logged soil. Owing to the fact 
that the supply of available plant-food in soil is largely 
dependent on the action of bacteria, it will readily be 
seen that it is highly important to provide conditions 
that will facilitate their action. 

A saving of plant-food is effected by drainage. If 
land is not well drained, and the fields, particularly 
those that are tilled, become surface-washed, much of 
the soil is carried away and with it the plant-food it 
contained. 

One of the benefits of drainage is the increase in the 
quality of crops. Grass, wheat, corn, and many other 
kinds of crops are, when other conditions are favorable, 
of better quality if grown in drained soil than if grown 
in wet soil. 

The reclaiming of waste land is, perhaps, one of the 
most beneficial results of drainage. Ground that would 
otherwise be useless is made fit for cultivation by 
ridding it of free water; in other words, the acreage of 
available land on a farm is increased by drainage. Wet 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 15 

soil that has never been farmed is, as a rule, rich in 
plant-food, and when reclaimed makes valuable farm 
land. 

Cost of Drainage.— Some experts on drainage consider 
$35 an acre as being the average cost of draining farm 
land. Others claim that land can be drained for from 
$12 to $15 an acre. There is, undoubtedly, a wide varia- 
tion in the cost of drainage. 

OPEN DITCHES 

Where large quantities of surplus water from sur- 
rounding highlands collect in ravines and overflow 
lowlands, open ditches should be constructed to carry 
away this surplus water. Gullies, which become larger 
at every rain, are likely to be formed when this is not 
done. These gullies interfere greatly with farm opera- 
tions and occupy space that might otherwise be profitably 
cultivated. 

Open ditches are also useful in draining large areas 
in regions where there is but little fall to the natural 
waterways. In such regions open ditches are provided 
to convey the water to natural water courses or to 
large open ditches that in many districts serve as 
outlets to drains from several farms. 

Locating of Open Ditches.— In locating an open ditch 
care must be taken to place it where it will receive the 
most of the surface water in times when there is much 
rain or snow. As far as possible, however, open ditches 
should be placed where they will not be in the way of 
farm operations, and where they will receive little or 
no damage from livestock. 

Construction of Open Ditches.— A ditch should have 
such an amount of fall, or grade, that a slow, steady 
flow will be maintained throughout its length. There will 
then be but little danger that the sides and banks of 
the ditch will be washed away. When a ditch is par- 
ticularly steep at any point, the speed of the water 
may be checked by a series of waterfalls. 



16 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 

The depth and width of a ditch should naturally 
largely depend on the maximum quantity of water to 
be carried by it, that is, the water it must carry in 
times of freshets. The width should be a little greater 
at the outlet than at the beginning, as the quantity of 
water carried becomes greater as the outlet is ap- 
proached. 

Under most conditions the best kind of an open ditch 
for farm lands is a wide ditch whose bank and sides, 
and where possible its bottom, are kept grassed con- 
tinually. Such drains can usually be maintained with 
less labor, expense, and inconvenience than any other 
type of open ditch. Open ditches are generally made 
with sloping sides, the best slope being about 45°. 
The banks can thus be grassed over so that the roots 
of the grass protect the soil by holding it in place, and 
with such a slope the grass can be easily mowed. 

Furrow Drains.— Comparatively level stretches of stiff 
clay soil are often met with that can be properly drained 
neither by the ordinary surface ditch nor the under- 
drain. One of the best methods of removing surplus 
water from such areas is to plow the fields in narrow 
lands, or divisions, leaving open, or dead, furrows at 
the sides of each land. The water will collect in these 
open furrows and will, if there is an incline to the 
surface of the field, drain to some outlet. Even if the 
field is so level that water will not dr^n from the fur- 
rows, the drainage conditions of the field are better 
than if no open furrows were made, for the surplus water 
is removed from around the roots of many of the plants 
in the field. 

The distance apart and the depth of the furrows will, 
of course, depend on various conditions. If the field is 
level or nearly so, the practice is to make the furrows 
shallow and from 9 to 15 ft. apart; if there is enough 
inclination to the surface of the field to cause the water 
in the furrows to pass to an outlet, the furrows are 
made deep, and from 40 to 50 ft. apart. 



SOIL IMPROVEMEXT 17 

UNDERDRAINS 

Arrangement of Underdrains.— All the lines of tile, 
with the silt wells whenever these are employed, that 
are used in draining surplus water from a field, make 
up what is known as an uiiderdrainage system. The prin- 
cipal line or conduit of such a system is called a 
main; sometimes a main constitutes the entire system. 
When a large area is to be drained it is generally 
necessary for an underdrainage system to be made up 
of many branches. The number and size of these 
branches naturally depend on the area to be drained 
and the quantity of water to be removed. 

A submain is a line of tile that has one or more drains 
branching from it but is itself subsidiary to a main. 
The lines that extend from either a main or a submain 
and that have no other lines branching from them are 
known as laterals. As more water is carried in the main 
of a drainage system than in the submains or the 
laterals, the main is generally made of tile of a larger 
bore than those used in building any of the other lines. 
More water is carried in submains than in their own 
laterals, and usually more than is carried in the lat- 
erals of the main, and so submains are generally made 
of tile with a larger bore than the tile used in laterals. 
The laterals should join the main or the submains 
at oblique angles and the submains should join the mains 
at like angles. 

Determining Size of Tile to Use.— In determining the 
size of tile to use in an underdrain, careful study should 
be made of the quantity of water to be carried, the 
slope of the land in the area to be drained, and the 
size of this area. The quantity of water to be carried 
is naturally a very important consideration. Other 
things being equal, larger-sized tile should be used in 
regions where the rainfall is heavy than in those where 
it is light. It should be borne in mind that drainage 
has to deal with the extreme rather than the average 
2 



18 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 

rainfall. Suppose, for example, that there is often as 
much as 2 in. of rainfall in 24 hr. in a locality. If a 
drain is constructed in such a region provision should 
be made for getting rid of a large quantity of water 
quickly, as a rainfall of 2 in. gives 54,308 gal. of water 
to the acre. Of this, say one-fourth, is lost through 
evaporation and one-fourth is absorbed by the crops; 
there still remains one-half the water, or 27,154 gal., to 
be carried off through the drains. Of course this water 
is carried away slowly, but if the tile in the drains are 
too small it may remain in the soil long enough to 
injure the crops. 

The extent of the area to be drained should likewise 
be considered when the size of tile to use is being 
determined. The following rules for determining in a 
general way the acreage that mains will drain will be 
helpful, but when considering them, the fact that many 
other conditions enter into the problem should not be 
overlooked. If the fall is about 3 in. in 100 ft., the 
rule for finding the acreage that can be drained by a 
tile of any diameter is to square the diameter and 
divide by 4. Hence, if a 3-in. tile is used, the area 
it will drain is 3x3 t4 = 2^ A. If a 4-in. tile is used 
the area that will be drained is 4x4-r4 = 4 A. If the 
fall is about 4 in. in 100 ft., the diameter is squared 
and the result divided by 3 instead of 4. Under this 
condition, a 3-in. main will carry the water from 3 A., 
and a 4-in. main from 51/^ A. 

Distance Between Laterals.— Before deciding on the 
distance from each other at which to lay laterals in 
an area to be drained, full consideration should be taken 
of the inclination of the land, the kind of soil, and the 
quantity of water in the area. When there is a sharp 
incline, the water is more readily removed than when it 
has a gradual slope or is level, and consequently the 
laterals should be placed farther apart in the first case 
than in the other. The kind of soil and the quantity of 
water are, naturally, important points. 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 19 

Water will reach a drain more quickly in a coarse- 
grained soil than in a fine-grained soil; therefore, the 
laterals should be placed farther apart in a sandy soil 
than in a clay soil. The following are the usual dis- 
tances at which laterals should be placed apart from 
each other in various kinds of soil: In stiff clay soils, 
from 30 to 40 ft.; in loamy soils, from 40 to 50 ft.; in 
silty soils, from 50 to 60 ft.; in sandy soils, from 75 to 
100 ft. In addition to considering these general rules, 
a farmer might do well to ascertain the experience other 
farmers in the locality may have had with drains on land 
similar to his. 

Depth of Underdrains— When deciding the depth at 
which to lay a drain, careful consideration should be 
made of the climate of the region, the soil of the area 
to be drained, and the crops that are to be raised. 

As the freezing of the water in drain tile will burst 
or displace them, they should be laid below the depth 
at which the ground freezes. In most parts of the 
United Slates a depth of from 3 to 4 ft. will be below 
frost, and consequently this is a good average depth 
for drains on tilled land. 

The kind of soil is an important factor in determining 
the depth of an underdrain. When a field has a loose 
gravelly or sandy subsoil 3 or 4 ft. below the surface, 
care should be taken not to lay the tile so deep as to 
cause the water-table to be located in the subsoil. As 
water percolates easily through such subsoils, they 
would, unless the drain were placed above the subsoil, 
act as a filter through which the water would be carried 
out of the reach of plant roots. 

In a field that has a stiff clay subsoil, the drain 
should also be placed above the subsoil, but for a 
different reason. Water percolates so slowly through 
a stiff clay that sufficient surplus water will not be 
removed to benefit the crops growing on the field. 
Drains in such a field should be as shallow as climatic 
conditions will allow. 



20 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 

Peaty soils or others of like class, which contain con- 
siderable humus, often settle to a depth of 2 ft. or 
more after being drained. In such areas the drains 
should be placed deep enough to allow for the sinking 
of the soil. 

The natural wetness of a soil should influence the 
consideration of the depth of a drain. If a soil is wet 
only in the early spring and the late fall, and the 
farmer desires to work the land at both these seasons, 
he will probably be able to get rid of sufficient surplus 
water by building a drain, say from 3 to 3^'2 ft. in 
depth. On the other hand, if land is wet in the late 
spring and the early fall, and but partly dry in the 
summer, a drain from 3^ to 4J/2 ft. deep may be nec- 
essary. 

The kinds of crops to be grown in drained land should 
have considerable influence on deciding the depth of 
drains. In a tilled field the ground freezes much deeper 
than in a field protected by a sod, and for this reason 
drains laid in permanent meadows or pastures may be 
more shallow than those laid in tilled fields. 

Excavating for Underdrains.— After the ditch for a tile 
drain has been laid out and the grade has been properly 
marked on grade stakes, the excavating of the ditch is 
next in order. As with surface ditches, the work is 
done with hand tools or by means of a plow. The 
depth of the ditch at all points should correspond with 
the figures on the grade stakes, and the earth removed 
should be thrown near the ditch, as it has to be replaced 
after the tile are laid. Special care should also be 
taken to remove all loose dirt from the ditch, as its 
presence is likely to interfere with the laying of the tile. 

Laying Tile in Underdrains.— Tile are laid end to end 
on the bottom of the ditch, generally in a single row. 
A whole tile should be placed at the outlet. When two 
rows are laid parallel in the same ditch it is a good 
plan, after two whole tile have been laid at the outlet, 
to have the joints of one row alternate with the joints 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 21 

of the other by starting the remainder of one row with 
a whole tile, and the remainder of the other row with 
a half tile. When this plan is employed each joint is 
opposite the center of a tile in the other row. The 
two rows can be laid at the same time. 

The ends of the tile in an underdrain should be 
placed very close together, as a tight joint tends to 
prevent the entrance of silt and roots. There is no 
danger of getting joints so tight that water will not 
enter them. The tile if properly laid below where 
frost can reach them are practically indestructible, and 
hence the only way in which a tile drain is likely to 
become useless is by being clogged. 

Obtaining a Uniform Grade.— There are many methods 
in vogue for obtaining a uniform grade in tile drains. 
A method that is commonly used is to test the grade 
by means of a spirit level as the tile are laid. If the 
grade of the line of tile is to be, say, 5 in. in 100 ft., 
there should be a grade of 2^ in. in 50 ft., 1% in. in 
25 ft., Vg in. in 12^ ft., or ^^ in. in 2^ ft. For practical 
purposes, the amount of fall, or grade, in such a case 
may be regarded as % in. for esch 2 ft. Since a tile is 1 ft. 
long, the distance from the center of the first tile to the 
same position on the third tile is 2 ft. Therefore, if the 
grade is correct, the spirit level when raised % in. at 
the end toward the outlet should have the horizontal 
bubble in the center. 

To verify the calculation of the grade after laying 
twelve or thirteen tile, it is a good plan to place a 
leveling board or other straightedge on these tile and 
set the spirit level on top of it, calculating the grade 
as just explained. 

STABLE MANURE 

Horse Manure.— The dung of the horse, if the animal 

is in normal health, is very dry, owing to the large 

quantity of crude, woody, fiber which is undigested. 

This coarse fiber in horse dung gives it a loose texture, 



22 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 

which renders it liable to ferment easily. As soon as 
fermentation occurs, the manure readily loses much of 
its nitrogen in the form of ammonia. Horse dung is 
uniform in its character, being less variable in quality 
than any other animal manure. 

Horses that are in the stable at night and at feeding 
times during the day, drop about two-thirds of their 
dung in the stable. 

The ordinary work horse of 1,200 lb. will make from 
50 to 60 lb. of manure a day, one-half of which is urine. 
At this rate, one horse will make in the neighborhood 
of 10 T. of manure a year, about 6 T. of which are 
dropped in the stable. 

The liquid manure of solid-hoofed animals like the 
horse and mule is very rich in nitrogen and potash. 
Most of the nitrogen exists in the form of urates. On 
these compounds the bacteria act so soon after the 
manure is voided that the smell of hartshorn, or am- 
monia, is very perceptible in a horse stable. Such a 
condition always means loss of nitrogen. 

Cattle Manure.— Steers and cows make a large quan- 
tity of both solid and liquid manure. The average 
quantity from a mature animal is 70 lb. a day, 30 lb. of 
which is solid and 40 lb. liquid. No other class of 
animals surpasses cattle in the quantity of the liquid 
voided, taking into consideration, of course, the weight 
of the animals. In estimating the value of the manure 
from either steers or cows, it is a serious mistake not 
to take into consideration the liquid manure along with 
the solid. As a rule, these animals, in summer time, are 
on a pasture range, and in the winter, if stabled at all, 
they are in the stable only at night, having the run 
of a barnyard during the day. By such practice, much 
of their manure is lost on the pasture, roads, and lanes, 
or is dropped in the barnyard. Cattle differ from horses 
and mules in that they will urinate as frequently out 
of as in the stable. Cattle manure, owing to its watery 
condition, decomposes much more slowly than does 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 23 

horse manure; it is also less inclined to ferment and 
fire-fang. 

Sheep Manure. — The dung from sheep tests very high 
in nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, being richer 
than that of ai y of the other farm animals, except, 
perhaps, poultry. Sheep dung is highly concentrated and 
ferments readily, which means a loss of ammonia. It is 
a quick-acting manure in the soil, soon becoming avail- 
able as plant-food. 

A fuli grown sheep will produce from 1 to V^ T. of 
manure a year. Sheep manure is liable to the same 
losses that attend horse manure, and these losses come 
about in a similar way. 

Swine Manure.— The size and age of the animal has 
much to do with the quantity of hog manure that is 
made by one animal in a year. As nearly as experi- 
ments can be made to ascertain the facts, a hog makes, 
both of solid and liquid manure, from 8 to 10 lb. a day. 
Hogs drink considerable swill and water; consequently, 
their manure contains a large percentage of liquid. 
This being the case, it is not inclined to heat as 
quickly as either horse or sheep voidings. But, owing 
to the large quantity of water contained, it is in danger of 
losing some of its value by leaching. Hog manure decom- 
poses slowly and in this respect it is like that of cattle. 

Poultry Manure. — Poultry manure compares very 
favorably with that of sheep. It is rich in all the 
plant-food elements, because the solid and liquid void- 
ings are made at the same time. As a fertilizer it acts 
promptly, but as it belongs to the hot manures, fermen- 
tation starts readily and the ammonia in it is likely to 
be lost in the air. To prevent this loss, plenty of 
powdered absorbents, like gypsum, road dust, fine loam, 
or other similar material, should be applied to the 
droppings when they are fresh. 

Influence of Feed on Value of Manure.— The real 
value of manure, both in quantity and quality, depends 
not only on the inimal producing it, but still more on 



24 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 

the kind of feed fed to the animal. It has been proved 
both by experience and by chemical analyses that rich 
feed makes rich manure. Animals give off in solid and 
liquid excreta only that which they have eaten. If 
they eat feed rich in protein, the manure will be rich 
in nitrogen, because it is in the protein that nitrogen 
is found; whereas, if their feed is poor in protein, the 
manure is poor in nitrogen. Then, again, if they eat 
feed rich in carbohydrates, the manure, being of the 
same character as the feed, will not be nearly so val- 
uable as if the animals had been fed protein feed. 

Horses, cattle, and sheep, fed principally on hay and 
other fodders, make manure rich in potash but poor in 
phosphoric acid and nitrogen. This condition is due to 
the fact that most of the potash of plants is found in the 
leaves and stems. Cottonseed meal stands at the head 
of the list of all feeds for making rich manure. Linseed 
meal is another mill feed that makes a manure rich 
in value. Gluten meal stands next to linseed meal in 
its manure-making power, although it is a product that 
is very likely to vary in protein content. Distillers' 
grains, such as Ajax flakes, are high in protein, hence 
a manure rich in nitrogen can be expected when they 
are liberally included in a ration for livestock. Wheat 
bran is another feed that is excellent for its manurial 
value. Although worth only about one-third as much 
as cottonseed meal, or one-half as much as linseed or 
gluten meal for nitrogen, it contains a large quantity 
of ash, which makes it valuable as a manure producer, 
Corn meal is very low in manure-making value, how- 
ever, a fact that often surprises farmers when they are 
thus informed. Yet, it is only too true that corn meal 
has only about one-half the manurial value of wheat 
bran, one-third that of linseed meal, and one-fourth that 
of cottonseed meal. There are many other mill feeds, 
such as wheat middlings, buckwheat middlings, rice 
feed, etc., that are very useful both for their feed value 
to animals and for their manure-making value. 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 25 

The grasses like timothy, red top, orchard grass, and 
other similar plants, when fed to livestock, do not 
yield nearly so rich a manure as the legumes, such as 
clover, alfalfa, etc. The difference is not due to their 
digestibility, for grasses, like timothy, are more easily 
digested by the animal than legumes like clover, but it 
is due to the difference in nitrogen content inherent in 
the plant itself. There is also a difference in the 
manurial value of the varieties of each plant class. 
Corn fodder, a grass, yields a richer manure than 
timothy, while alfalfa, a legume, makes richer manure 
than Red clover. 

Care of Horse Manure,— To save both the liquid and 
solid manure of horses, the water-tight floor of their 
stalls should be inclined slightly from the front to a 
point just behind the animals. At this point the floor 
should be a flat gutter having just enough of a de- 
pression to it to keep the liquid from flowing back 
over the main floor of the stable. The dung, urine, 
litter, and absorbents can be mixed in the gutter and 
all loss of liquid prevented. 

Care of Cattle Manure.— If cattle or steers are stalled 
in a stable, there is no better way devised to save all 
their manure than to construct a water-tight gutter 
behind them. To hold a day's voidings, this gutter 
should be 24 in. wide and 7 in. deep, with the sides 
perpendicular and the bottom perfectly level. All the 
litter, absorbents, dung, and urine of the manure should 
be collected in this gutter, enough of litter and ab- 
sorbents being used to soak up all the liquid. The 
manure from a gutter of this size should be removed 
daily and be spread on the fields as desired. 

Care of Hog Manure.— The solid and liquid manure of 
hogs requires the same care and precaution against waste 
as that of other animals. Hogs usually drop most of their 
voidings in the outside pen. To prevent loss of the liquid 
manure, the floor of this pen should be water-tight and 
should slope toward either one side or the other. 



26 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 

A water-tight gutter of sufficient depth and width to 
hold the manure for whatever length of time the farmer 
sees fit to have it there, should be built along the 
sloping side. Hog manure, being cold, is not likely to 
heat quickly. If, however, heating occurs, the manure 
should be removed at once and applied to the soil; 
otherwise, it will waste. The gutter for hog manure 
should have a roof over it to protect the manure from 
the weather. Litter and absorbents are as necessary 
for use with hog manure as with any other kind. 

Care of Sheep Manure.— Sheep are not stalled but are 
allowed to run loose in stables, yet their manure needs 
to be cared for quite as much as that of any other class 
of livestock. Owing to the dryness of their dung and 
the small quantity of water voided, there is no need 
of gutters as for the animals previously named. A tight 
floor over the whole sheep barn is of importance if the 
greatest quantity of manure is to be saved. Litter will 
not take the place of a tight floor, but when used on a 
floor that will not allow the manure to escape it is a 
most excellent material to retain all the rich manure of 
the sheep. As a rule, there is more litter used for sheep 
than for other animals, the idea being to have the flock 
tramp a large quantity of it into shreds to be used as 
fine manure. It is customary to allow manure to remain 
in the sheep stable and add bedding from time to time, 
only removing it when a large quantity has accumulated. 

Care of Poultry Manure.— The coarse litters are not so 
well suited for saving poultry manure as are the pow- 
dered mineral absorbents. In a poultry house, a tight 
floor or dropping-board sprinkled with road dust, loam, 
gypsum, or some other absorbent is very necessary to 
retain the richness of the poultry manure. Poultry 
manure should be gathered frequently so that it may not 
be wasted by being knocked about over the house by the 
moving fowls. 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 27 



GREEN MANURE 

Weeds as Green Manure.— Weeds are often very rich 
in plant-food, and although it is not recommended to 
have them grow on farms, they may be made use of by 
plowing them under for green manure. The best time 
to put them under the soil is while they are in bloom, 
as they are thus prevented from going to seed. 

Clovers as Green Manure.— Red clover is one of the 
plants sometimes used for green manuring. If the whole 
plant is turned under, it will supply a large quantity of 
vegetable matter to form humus. However, the tops are 
so valuable for animal feed that, as a rule, the entire 
plant is seldom used for green manure. 

Alsike clover is useful as a green manure. One ad- 
vantage of this variety is that the plants will often 
grow on ground too wet for Red clover. Besides this, 
Alsike lasts in the soil longer than does Red clover. 

Crimson clover, like Red clover, has a long tap root 
and numerous branching roots. It is particularly useful 
as a catch crop, and if plowed under will make very 
good green manure. A crop of Crimson clover in a 
region where it is indigenous is easily grown, and is one 
that yields a heavier tonnage per acre than any of the 
other clovers. 

Canada Field Peas as Green Manure.— The Canada field 
pea, which is grown to a great extent in the northern 
part of the United States, makes a very good green- 
manure crop. It is a quick-growing crop, the plants 
blooming about 7 or 8 weeks after the seed is planted. 
The physical condition of a soil on which pea 
vines have been grown is very much improved; so 
much so, in fact, that it is often surprising to see how 
the soil crumbles when being plowed. The matting of 
the pea vines on the surface of the ground may be 
largely prevented if the crop is grown with a strong- 
growing, tall-stemmed variety of oats, as the oat plants 



28 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 

will act as a support for the pea vines. Better results 
are insured by planting the seed of peas and oats 
separately, the peas being placed from 2V2 to 3 in. in 
the soil and the oats L in. The combination planting, 
or even the peas grown alone, makes an excellent 
green-manure crop. 

Cowpeas as Green Manure.— Cowpeas grow with heavy 
foliage and consequently make a large quantity of 
green manure. However, the mass of foliage is so great 
at times that, when it is all plowed under, the heat 
caused by the decaying vegetable matter will make the 
top layer of soil too dry. When used as green manure, 
cowpeas should not be plowed under too deeply. For 
the northern part of the United States, the varieties 
known as New Era and Whippoorwill are probably the 
best. They are quick-growing and will generally de- 
velop sufficiently during the growing season to furnish 
a large quantity of green manure. 

Soybeans as Green Manure.— The soybean, like the 
cowpea, makes a large quantity of valuable green 
manure. It grows very well in the southern part of the 
United States, and has an advantage over the cowpea 
in that it is able to stand more drought. The soybean 
plants, too, grow more upright and with less matting 
of stems. 

Vetch as Green Manure.— Two kinds of vetch are used 
for green manuring, namely. Hairy vetch and Common 
vetch. 

Hairy vetch, although it grows best on a rich, moist 
soil, will often make satisfactory growth on soils that 
are somewhat dry and sandy, and for this reason is 
sometimes called sand vetch. As sand vetch will mat 
<on the ground, the crop is often sown with some other 
crop, a cereal like wheat, rye, or oats usually being 
chosen. 

The Common vetch, or tare, is a legume similar in 
habits of growth to the field or garden pea. The vetch 
plant, however, is more slender, and has more tendrils 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 29 

and leaves than the pea plant. Common vetch makes a 
good catch crop if sown with either rye or wheat, as 
these crops will hold the vines off the ground. When 
plowed under, this mixed crop makes excellent green 
manure. 

Alfalfa as Green Manure.— Alfalfa is seldom used as 
a green manure, as the tops are of great value as animal 
feed. It makes excellent green manure, however, when 
it is desired to use it as such. 

Effects of Green Manuring.— One of the principal 
benefits of green manuring is that it adds humus to 
the soil, thus making the soil more porous, more re- 
tentive of film water, and lighter in weight, the latter 
being particularly true of heavy soils, like clay. Owing 
to the fact that soils treated by green manuring are 
made physically better, they are easier to work with 
the implements of tillage than soils not so treated. 

Another benefit of green manuring is the addition 
to the soil of such plant-foods as nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid, potash, and lime, these fertilizing elements being 
contained in varying quantities in the crop turned under. 

The decomposing of the vegetable matter of green 
manure adds much heat to the soil. The quantity of 
heat liberated when vegetable matter decays is as great 
as if the same quantity of matter were burned, the only 
difference being in the time taken to complete the 
process. In fact, decomposition is really slow burning. 
This heating caused by the decay of green manure is 
often of much benefit to the crop that follows. 

Soil depth can be increased by green manuring, pro- 
vided the vegetable matter is placed somewhat deeper 
than the usual plow depth. The plowing must not be 
so deep, however, as to shut off the supply of air from 
the surface, because air is necessary for the decay of 
vegetable matter. 

Supplying of Green Manure.— Two or even three 
green-manure crops may be grown and turned under 
within a year, provided, of course, that the income crop 



30 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 

is given up. The advantage of turning under several 
crops is that much more humus and nitrogen can be 
added to the soil than when only one crop is used. The 
work may be begun either in the spring or the fall, as 
desired. 

The stage of a crop's growth greatly influences its value 
for green manure. If the plants have mature, woody 
stems, the vegetable matter will be slow to decay when 
placed underneath the plow furrow. Besides this, when 
a layer of dry, woody plant material is placed a few 
inches below the soil surface, the normal supply of 
capillary water from the lower soil depths is partly pre- 
vented from reaching the roots of the plants growing in 
the soil. Then, too, mature plants during their growth 
have used large quantities of water, and the soil on 
which they are grown is therefore likely to be deficient 
in water. Thus, it is easy to conclude that plants should 
not be too mature when they are plowed under for 
green manure. During their blossoming period, plants 
are in the best condition to be plowed under. At this 
stage of growth, the stems are soft and succulent, will 
decay rapidly, and will not cause the surface soil to 
become dry for the succeeding crop. 

The deeper green manure is placed in the soil, the 
longer it will take the vegetable matter to decay. This 
is because air, which is necessary for decay, is present 
in smaller quantities as the soil depth increases. In 
wet weather 4 in. and in dry weather 5 in. are good 
average plow depths for green manuring. 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 

Nitrate of Soda. — Chile saltpeter, or nitrate of soda, 
is a natural product that is mined with common salt in 
the rainless regions of South America. Before the 
fertilizer is sent to the farmer, it is purified. It then 
contains from about 95 to 97% of practically pure nitrate 
of soda. This purified salt contains from 15j^ to 16% of 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 31 

nitrogen, which means, of course, from iSYi to 16 lb. to 
the hundredweight. The price of nitrate of soda varies 
from $50 to $70 a ton, thus making the nitrogen it con- 
tains cost from 15 to 20c. or more a pound. 

Sulphate of Ammonia.— At gasworks where gas is 
manufactured for light and fuel, a by-product called 
sulphate of ammonia is formed. This material is sold 
as a fertilizer. In 100 lb. of the sulphate there are 
25 lb. of ammonia, which is equal to 20J/2 lb. of actual 
nitrogen. Since the sulphate, like the nitrate, is readily 
soluble, it should be applied after the crop is started. 
Sulphate of ammonia is a good fertilizer to use when 
growing wheat, corn, rye, oats, grass, or potatoes. 

Dried Blood.— Among the important nitrogenous ani- 
mal fertilizers is dried blood. This material is rich in 
nitrogen and decays readily in the soil. At packing 
houses, the blood from the animals that are killed is 
carefully saved and dried, and then ground into meal. 
Two grades of the meal are on the market; one is bright 
red and the other is somewhat darker and almost black. 
The red meal contains from 13 to 15% of nitrogen, with 
little or no phosphoric acid, while the dark, or black, 
meal has from 6 to 12% of nitrogen and usually a small 
percentage of phosphoric acid. This lower grade of 
dried blood is more generally used in the manufacture 
of fertilizers, chiefly on account of its being cheaper 
in price. The red meal is extensively used as a stock 
food. 

Tankage. — A fertilizer known as tankage is put on the 
market as a by-product of the large slaughter houses. 
Tankage is composed of the animal parts that cannot 
be used for other purposes. Two grades of tankage 
fertilizer, known as concentrated and crushed, are offered 
for sale. 

Concentrated tankage is made by evaporating some of 
the animal fluids that are rich in fat. This leaves a 
fairly uniform product, yielding on analysis from 10 to 
12% of nitrogen and a small per cent, of phosphoric acid. 



32 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 

Crushed tankage is made by boiling and steaming the 
otherwise waste materials, removing the fat, and drying 
and grinding the residue. It contains on the average 
from 5 to 10% of nitrogen and from 3 to 12% of phos- 
phoric acid. 

Fish Fertilizer. — Fish and tish scrap in various forms 
are utilized in making commercial fertilizer. At packing 
houses and fish canneries, all the waste fish products are 
saved and sold for fertilizer. At fish-oil works, the 
residue left after removing the oil is the part used as 
fertilizer. Fertilizer made of such material is more 
uniform in quality than that from the packing houses 
and canneries, and contains, as a rule, from 7 to 8% 
of nitrogen and the same amount of phosphoric acid. 

Garbage Tankage. — The garbage of cities is often 
utilized for making commercial fertilizer. The value of 
such fertilizer, on account of the great variety of 
material of which the tankage is composed, varies 
widely. As a rule, this kind of fertilizer contains small 
quantities of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. 

Wool and Hair Waste.— At slaughter houses, the refuse 
hair and wool is saved and sold as a fertilizer. Its 
nitrogen content is relatively high, reaching, especially 
if the refuse is mixed with blood and other forms of 
animal matter, as high as 12%. However, as wool and 
hair decay slowly, the fertilizer is classed as a low- 
grade product. 

The waste wool from both carpet and woolen-goods 
factories is often used as a top dressing for grass lands. 
On an average, such waste contains from 1 to 5% of 
soluble potash and from 4 to 7% of nitrogen. 

Hoof and Horn Meal. — From the waste of hoofs and 
horns, where these products are manufactured into 
combs, buttons, etc., fertilizers known as either hoof or 
horn meal are made. Although these meals contain as 
high as 12% of nitrogen they are very slow acting and 
of little use unless very finely ground. Hoof meal has 
been found by experience to decay more quickly in a 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 33 

soil than horn meal. These slow-acting fertilizers are 
largely used in the manufacture of mixed fertilizers. 

Street Sweepings. — The sweepings from city streets 
are composed of manure mixed with dust or mud, chips 
of wood, scraps of paper, nails, tin cans, bits of glass, 
etc. The value of street sweepings as fertilizer depends 
on the proportion of manure contained. 

Leather Meal.— At factories where leather is worked 
up into shoes, harnesses, etc. there are many waste 
scraps. As leather contains considerable nitrogen, these 
scraps are ground into meal and sold as fertilizer. 
Leather itself decays very slowly; therefore, the meal 
makes a slow-acting fertilizer. In fact, it is regarded 
as the slowest acting of all nitrogen fertilizers. 

Cottonseed and Linseed Meals.— The vegetable prod- 
ucts known as cottonseed and linseed meals are rich in 
nitrogen. Although they make very good fertilizer, 
their use for this purpose, on account of price, is nearly 
always limited to the regions in which cotton or flax 
is grown. So valuable are they as fertilizer, that whenever 
the price for which they can be purchased justifies their 
use, fertilizer men incorporate them in mixed goods. 

Castor Pomace. — The residue left after the oil has 
been extracted from the castor bean, known as castor 
pomace, is a vegetable product that is high in nitrogen. 
The pomace differs from cottonseed and linseed meals 
in that it is not used for feeding livestock. This makes 
its use as a fertilizer more general. Castor pomace, 
when analyzed, shows about 6% of nitrogen. 

Raw Bone.— When bones in their natural condition 
— that is, without any treatment of steaming, cooking, 
burning, or the use of acid— are ground into a fine 
powder, the product is known as raw bone. There is a 
strong tender cy to adulterate raw bone with such cheap 
materials as coal ashes, lime, and ground oyster shells. 
Bone in its raw state shows by analysis from 3 to 5% 
of nitrogen, from 20 to 25% of phosphoric acid, and from 
50 to 60% of lime. 
3 



34 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 

Steamed Bone. — If bones are steamed or boiled before 
grinding, the resulting product is known as steamed 
bone. The object of cooking raw bones is to get rid of 
the fat and meat particles. The steaming puts the bone 
into a condition that will permit it to be more easily 
crumbled. The advantage, then, that steamed bone has 
over raw bone is not due to a difference in composition, 
but to the fact that the steamed bone is more readily 
reduced to a fine powder than is raw bone; the finer 
the bone, the better it is fitted for use either as a 
single fertilizer or in mixed goods. 

Bone Black.— Charred, or partly burned, bone, called 
bone black, is extensively used in the refining of sugar. 
After being used several times, it is no longer valuable 
to the sugar manufacturer, and is then sold as fertilizer. 
This product contains about 30% of phosphoric acid, but 
like all other charcoal resists decay for a long time. 

Dissolved Bone.— When bones are treated with 
sulphuric acid, the phosphoric acid contained in them is 
made available, and the product is called dissolved 
bone, or acidulated bone. Dissolved bone contains from 
2 to 3% of nitrogen and from 15 to 17% of total phos- 
phoric acid, of which from 12 to 14% is available. 

Rock Phosphates.— In North Carolina, South Carolina, 
Tennessee, Florida, and one or two more states are 
found rock phosphates deposited in beds, veins, and 
pockets. As regards consistency, there are two classes 
of the phosphate rock. One is very hard and the other 
is comparatively soft. The soft rock is easily crushed, 
but powerful stone crushers are needed to render the 
hard rock fine enough for fertilizer. Raw phosphate 
rock usually contains from 18 to 30% of phosphoric acid, 
and owing to its variation in quality, it is sold at the 
crushers for from $1.75 to $4 a ton. 

Acid Phosphate, or Superphosphate.— By treating finely 
ground rock phosphate with sulphuric acid, the resulting 
material is commercial acid phosphate, which usually 
contains about 14% of phosphoric acid. Both dissolved 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 35 

bone and acid phosphate are sometimes known as super- 
phosphate. 

Basic Slag. — A basic slag formed as a by-product at 
iron furnaces where steel is manufactured is sold as 
fertilizer. This slag is known also as Thomas slag and 
odorless phosphate. To make it of use as a fertilizer, it 
must be ground very fine, and then in this form it is 
not soluble in water. The soil acids, however, will in 
time dissolve the phosphate and make it available as 
plant-food. The phosphoric acid content of basic slag 
ranges from 12 to 20%. 

Wood Ashes. — There are two kinds of wood ashes: 
those from hard-wood trees, such as hickory, oak, beech, 
walnut, and elm; and those from soft-wood trees, such 
as pine, cedar, spruce, poplar, etc. The ashes from hard 
woods are richer in potash than those from soft woods. 
Besides supplying potash to a soil, wood ashes, because 
they contain lime, correct acidity. They are good fer- 
tilizers for soils rich in humus and make a good top 
dressing for grass; but not more than 300 lb. per acre 
should be applied at one time. 

Kainite. — The only Stassfurt salt that in its crude 
condition is imported into the United States is kainite. 
It is a compound of magnesia, common salt, and potash, 
about 12 to 13% of the material last named being present. 
Kainite is used either alone as a fertilizer or in 
mixtures to form commercial brands. On account of its 
tendency to absorb water when kept for a long time, it 
gets lumpy, and when in this condition it is difficult to 
apply to the soil. One reason for the frequent use of 
kainite as a fertilizer is that it is cheaper per ton than 
the higher grades of potash. Kainite sells on the market 
for from $11 to $16 a ton. 

Muriate of Potash.— From the crude potash salts the 
muriate of potash is manufactured. It is perhaps the 
cheapest form of potash, as it contains 50% of actual 
potash on an average and sells for from $40 to $50 a 
ton, which, as just explained, brings the cost per pound 



36 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 

from 4 to 5c. However, it does not seem to be the best, 
for after continued use the muriate affects the soil in 
such a way that lime is required to bring it back to 
fertility. 

Muriate of potash can be used for all legumes and 
fruit trees, but on account of the chlorine it contains, 
it should not be used for potatoes, tobacco, sugar beets, 
onions, or mangels. For these, the sulphate of potash is 
a better form. 

Sulphate of Potash. — Another fertilizer made by re- 
fining crude Stassfurt salts, is sulphate of potash. It 
contains from 48 to as high as 53% of actual potash. It 
is a very valuable fertilizer, because it can be safely 
used on any and all crops. Sulphate of potash does not 
cause the loss of lime in soil as does the muriate, nor 
does it attract moisture, become lumpy, or pack into 
the soil. Perhaps the main reason that the sulphate 
form is not used more as a fertilizer is its cost. The 
actual potash in the sulphate costs ^c. more per pound 
than it does in the muriate. 

For clay soils, the sulphate is a better form to use 
than the muriate. On account of not becoming lumpy, 
the sulphate of potash mixes very easily with other 
ingredients in manufacturing commercial fertilizer. 

Vegetable Potash Fertilizers.— Sometimes, ground to- 
bacco stems are used as a potash fertilizer. On the 
average, they show by analysis from 7 to 8% of 
potash, from 2^/2 to 3^ of nitrogen, and from 3 to 5% of 
lime. 

Another vegetable product useful for commercial fer- 
tilizer is cottonseed hulls. Both raw hulls and the 
ashes obtained from burning the hulls are used. The 
ashes are the quicker acting, and, bulk for bulk, they 
are richer in potash and phosphoric acid. 

State Fertilizer Laws. — In states where fertilizers are 
used, there are state laws that require the manufacturer 
to attach to his goods a prescribed label. The form of 
this label is fixed by the state; as a rule, it must bear 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 37 

the name and address of the manufacturer, the weight 
of the package to which it is attached, and the chemical 
analysis of the fertilizer. In addition, the state fer- 
tilizer laws provide for the inspection and analysis of 
all brands offered for sale within the state. Were it 
not for these laws, the farmer when purchasing mixed 
or unmixed commercial fertilizer would be almost en- 
tirely at the mercy of the manufacturer. The reason 
for this is that no one can tell from the appearance, 
odor, weight, or handling qualities of a fertilizer 
whether it contains plant-food in such form and quantity 
that the fertilizer can profitably be applied to the soil. 
Chemical analysis is the only way in which the quantity 
of plant-food in a fertilizer can be determined. 

As a rule, mixed fertilizers are put up in bags, on 
the outside of which is printed the analysis. In some 
states the manufacturer is required to purchase from 
the state printed tags that bear the analysis of the 
brand to which they are to be attached and the sig- 
nature of the state chemist or person in charge of 
fertilizer control. No matter what form of label is used, 
the analysis must be legible and the fertilizer must 
conform to the analysis. In most states the state 
guarantees to the public that each package of fertilizer 
bearing the approved label contains as much of the 
fertilizing ingredients as the manufacturers state; if the 
fertilizer falls short of the guarantee, the manufacturer 
is liable to arrest and fine. From these statements it 
will be seen that every farmer who purchases fertilizer 
should become informed regarding the fertilizer control 
law in his particular state. 

Misleading Methods of Stating Analyses.— Notwith- 
standing this effort on the part of the state to protect 
the public, it is not difficult for fertilizer manufacturers 
to practice misleading methods of stating the analyses 
of their products. Some of these dubious practices 
can scarcely be said to be dishonest, yet they 
certainly give a wrong impression concerning goods. 



38 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 




ANALYSIS, f^ 



NITROGEN 3-3.5 PERCENT^ 
^2.AMM0NIA 3.6-4.2 ,. „ 
^3. SOLUBLE ] ■ 

^: PHOSPHORIC 10-12 n »: 
^ ACID J :: 

^4.ACTUAL POTASH 10-12 „ „.-^ 




For example, in the guaranteed analysis printed on a 
fertilizer bag or tag, the manufacturer often uses two 
numbers which represent, respectively, the minimum 
and the maximum percentage of each plant-food ingre- 
dient. This method of stating an analysis is shown in 
the accompanying illustra- 
tion. Although it is not dis- 
honest, it is, in a way, mis- 
leading, for unless a person 
is familiar with the inter- 
preting of an anlysis, he is 
likely, on account of seeing 
many figures, to be misled 
into thinking that he is 
getting considerable, more 
plant-food than is actually 
present in the fertilizer. 

As required by law, the 
manufacturer guarantees the 
smallest quantity of each 
ingredient shown in the 
analysis. The second number showing the maximum 
quantity of each ingredient that might be present, then, 
really has no meaning to the farmer. Thus, in the 
analysis shown in the illustration, nitrogen 3 to 3.5% 
means that there is at least 3% of nitrogen in the bag 
and that there may be 3.5% present. In the second 
line of the analysis, the nitrogen is given in terms of 
ammonia, 3% of nitrogen being equal to 3.6% of am- 
monia. As shown in the third line, the soluble phos- 
phoric acid is guaranteed to be 10% with a possibility 
that 12% may be found. The actual potash, as indicated 
in the line, is given as 10 to 12%, showing that 10% 
is there, but that as high as 12% may be present. 

As actual nitrogen, soluble phosphoric acid, and actual 
potash are the forms that a farmer should consider 
when buying a fertilizer, he should always bear in mind 
that the smallest quantities of these forms expressed on 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 39 

the bags show the true commercial value of the fer- 
tilizer. Therefore, in the analysis just given, the 
purchase should be made on the basis of 3% of 
nitrogen, 10% of phosphoric acid, and 10% of potash. 
If slightly more than these quantities are present, the 
farmer will be a gainer, but he should not figure on 
more than th, stated quantities being present. Neither 
should he be deceived by lengthy analyses that have as 
their purpose nothing but deception. 

Facts About Fertilizers. — On the market, both mixed 
and unmixed fertilizers are sold by the ton, with the 
quantity of plant-food ingredients expressed in per- 
centages. Thus, if a ton— 2,000 lb.— of fertilizer is said 
to contain 3% of nitrogen, 10% of phosphoric acid, and 
10% of potash, the quantities, in pounds, of these in- 
gredients are: 

Nitrogen 2,000 x .03 = 60 

Phosphoric acid 2,000 x .10 = 200 

Potash 2,000 x .10 = 200 

In stating the percentages of ingredients in a fer- 
tilizer, that of nitrogen is generally given first, that 
of phosphoric acid second, and that of potash last. In 
fact, it is so much a universal custom to use this order 
that the names of the ingredients are often omitted. 
Thus, the fertilizer just considered is often spoken of as 
a S'^o-io fertilizer. A 1-12-8 fertiliser would be one that 
contained 1% of nitrogen, 12% of phosphoric acid, and 
8% of potash. 

How to Find Fertilizer Equivalents.— It is often neces- 
sary for a farmer to find fertilizer equivalents. This 
is "because manufacturers do not confine their state- 
ments of analyses to the percentages of nitrogen, phos- 
phoric acid, and potash actually contained in a fertilizer. 
The following table will be found helpful in making 
the calculations necessary to express the quantity of 
one ingredient in terms of some other ingredient. 

By using this table a complex analysis of a fertilizer 
is made clear. For example, consider the following 



40 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 



analysis: Ammonia, 2%; available phosphoric acid, 8%; 
insoluble phosphoric acid, 2%; total phosphoric acid, 
10%; bone phosphate, 21.8%; actual potash, 4%; sulphate 
of potash, 7.4%. 



DATA FOR COMPUTING FERTILIZER 
EQUIVALENTS 



To Convert 
Guarantee of 


Into Terms of 


Multiply by 


Nitrogen 


Ammonia 


1.215 


Ammonia 


Nitrogen 


.823 


Sodium nitrate 


Nitrogen 


.165 


Nitrogen 


Sodium nitrate 


6.061 


Bone phosphate 


Phosphoric acid 


.458 


Phosphoric acid 


Bone phosphate 


2.183 


Potash 


Sulphate of potash 


1.850 


Sulphate of potash 


Potash 


.541 


Potash 


Muriate of potash 


1.583 


Muriate of potash 


Potash 


.632 



Referring to the table, the percentage of ammonia can 
be easily converted into terms of nitrogen by multi- 
plying the quantity of ammonia by .823. Thus, 2% of 
ammonia is equal to 2 x .823 - 1.65% of nitrogen. The 
available phosphoric acid given as 8% in the analysis is 
really the only quantity representing phosphoric acid 
that should be considered by the farmer. The 2% in- 
soluble added to the 8% soluble equals 10% total phos- 
phoric acid, as given. The quantity of bone phosphate, 
21.8%, is found by multiplying the 10% of total phos- 
phate acid by 2.183. There is really no reason why the 
quantity of phosphoric acid in the analysis need be 
given in terms of bone phosphate. The actual potash 
given as 4% is, as in the case of the available phos- 
phoric acid, the only quantity representing potash that it 
is necessary to give in the analysis. This amount, how- 
ever, when expressed in terms of sulphate of potash. 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 41 

found by multiplying 4 by 1.85, as shown in the table, 
equals 7.4%. It will readily be seen that the analysis 
under consideration could be written as follows: 
Nitrogen, 1.65%; available phosphoric acid, 8%; actual 
potash, 4%. 

LIMING OF SOILS 

Lime is a soil constituent that is necessary for nor- 
mal plant growth. This is proved by the fact that 
plants will not grow properly in soils deficient in lime. 
An additional proof is that when plants are analyzed, 
lime is found. But, as a rule, enough lime is present 
in the soil for the use of crops; if it were not for the 
fact that lime is needed in soil for other purposes than 
as a plant-food, it would seldom be necessary to apply 
it. For this reason, lime is usually considered an indi- 
rect fertilizer; that is, it indirectly renders soil more 
fertile. 

The beneficial effects that result from the liming of 
soil are. of course, dependent on the condition of the 
soil. Aside from the value of lime as a plant-food, 
there are three ways in which it may benefit soil, 
namely: (1) by correcting soil acidity; (2) by making 
otherwise unavailable plant-food available; (3) by im- 
proving the mechanical condition. 

Effects of Lime. — Soils that are sour, or acid, produce 
very poor crops. The acid in soil comes largely from 
plant roots, where it is needed to dissolve a part of the 
plant-food. Soils on which crops have been raised for 
a number of years without the application of lime are 
very likely to become sour from the surplus of this 
plant acid that remains in them. The use of com- 
mercial fertilizers that are acid also tends to make 
soil acid. The same is true of soils in which free 
water is allowed to stand for a long time; insufficient 
drainage is a very common cause of soil acidity. On 
account of these conditions, many of the farm soils of 
the United States and other countries are acid; and if 



42 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 

these soils are to produce good crops, the acidity must 
be corrected. This can best be done by the application 
of lime. 

In some soils nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash 
are often present in such a form that they are unavail- 
able to plants. This is often the case in soils of a 
vegetable origin, such as reclaimed swamp soils and 
heavy black loams containing long, deep roots. When 
such a condition exists, lime is an effective agent in 
rendering the plant-food available. In fact, the good 
effects obtained by applying lime to soil are often due 
to the action of the lime in releasing plant-food. 

Some soils, particularly those of a heavy clay nature, 
are vastly improved mechanically by lime. In heavy 
soils the particles composing them are very fine and 
have a tendency to pack together, thus causing the soil 
to retain a large quantity of free water and to become 
very unfriable. Lime causes the fine soil particles to 
flocculate, that is, join together in small lumps. This 
makes the soil more friable, lighter, and easier to work 
with the implements of tillage. In other words, the 
structure is greatly improved. 

Methods of Determining Whether Soil Needs Lime. 
Although it is very profitable to apply lime where it 
is needed, it is a waste of labor and money to apply 
it where it is not needed. For this reason, soil should 
be tested to determine whether it is in need of lime 
before an application is made. There are three com- 
mon tests for determining this point; the beet test, the 
litmus-paper test, and the ammonia test. These tests 
can easily be made by any one. 

The beet test consists merely of growing a crop of 
beets in the soil to be tested. Owing to the fact that 
all kinds of beets grow very poorly in soils deficient in 
lime, a beet crop is a good indicator of the condition 
of a soil with respect to this constituent. To make the 
test the ground may be prepared and the beets planted 
as follows; 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 43 

Lay off in the field a piece of ground 36 ft. by 90 ft. 
Next, plow this ground as deeply as the soil will allow 
without subsoil being brought to the surface; the usual 
depth of plowing in the locality will be the best for 
the test. Roll the ground immediately after it is 
plowed, and then put on, at the rate of 500 to 600 lb. 
per acre, a good complete fertilizer — one containing 
available nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash — that is 
rich in nitrogen. Harrow the ground well after apply- 
ing the fertilizer. Then divide the piece into three 
plats of equal size and spread lime as evenly as pos- 
sible on two of them, using 100 lb. on one plat and 
50 lb. on the other, which is at the approximate rate of 
1 T. and 2 T. per acre. 

On the third plat use no lime at all, as this is to be 
a check plat. The lime used in the test should be very 
fine and free from lumps, and should be brushed into 
the soil with a weeder or a light harrow. When applied 
in this way it does not come in direct contact with 
the ammonia of the fertilizer. Next, beet seed of a 
quantity sufficient, if they all grow, to produce a good 
stand should be drilled into the soil. The beets should 
be permitted to come to maturity, when the yields of 
the different plats will show whether or not lime is 
needed on the soil. 

The litmus-paper test is used to determine whether a 
soil is acid. If a soil is found to be acid it follows 
that it is in need of lime. Litmus paper is a paper 
covered with a preparation called litmus. It has the 
property of turning red when it comes in contact with 
an acid and blue when it comes in contact with an 
alkali. In making soil tests, the blue litmus paper 
used by chemists should be used, as it is better than 
the common grade generally sold by druggists. To 
test a soil, puddle a small quantity with water in a 
cup and then place a small strip of blue litmus paper 
in the wet soil. If the paper turns red soon after being 
placed in contact with the soil, it is a good indication 



44 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 

that the soil is acid and, consequently, that it needs 
lime. Before making the test, however, it is a good 
plan to determine whether the water used for puddling 
is free from acid. 

The ammonia test is used, like the litmus-paper test, 
to determine whether soil is acid. To make the am- 
monia test, half fill a 2-oz. bottle with the soil to be 
tested and pour boiled rainwater into the bottle until 
the water is about ^ in. above the soil. Next add a 
teaspoonful of strong ammonia. If the water in the 
bottle is turned slightly yellow, it indicates that the 
soil is slightly acid; if the water is made almost brown 
in color, it indicates that the soil is decidedly acid. 
Owing to the fact that the ammonia test is somewhat 
less convenient of application than the litmus-paper 
test, it is not so commonly used as the latter. 

Application of Lime to Soils.— Two forms of lime are 
now used for soil improvement. These are limestone 
in powdered form and stone lime, or quicklime, made 
by burning limestone. Both forms can be purchased on 
the market, or, if limestone exists in a community, the 
farmer can burn it himself and thus obtain stone lime. 
Powdered limestone is in condition to be applied to the 
soil when it is purchased. Stone lime, or quicklime, as 
it comes from the kilns must be either ground or slaked 
before it is of use in a soil. By slaking is meant the 
absorbing of water. This produces a chemical change, 
making the lime caustic. In this condition the lime is 
a powder and can easily be applied to the soil. Lime 
may be slaked either by applying water to it directly 
or by exposixig it to the air, from which it absorbs the 
moisture necessary for slaking it. 

There are several ways in which lime can be spread 
on the soil. It may be applied with a manure spreader, a 
lime spreader, or a fertilizer distributor, be spread from a 
wagon or be placed in piles on the ground and distributed 
by means of shovels. If a manure spreader is used and 
the wind is blowing, it is practically necessary to use 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 45 

a wooden or a canvas hood over the spreader drum, to 
prevent the loss of considerable lime. Spreading lime 
from a wagon by means of shovels is an unsatisfactory 
method, as the lime, being caustic, will burn the hands 
and faces of the workmen, and, besides, is likely to 
injure the harness. If lime is to be distributed from 
piles on the ground, the size and distance apart of these 
will, of course, depend on the quantity of lime that is 
to be used per acre. If it is desired to use 1 T. per 
acre, 50-lb. heaps 'should be placed 33 ft. apart. Two 
tons per acre can be distributed by placing 100-lb. 
heaps 33 ft. apart. 

It is often desired to apply a certain number of bushels 
per acre. The weight of a bushel of stone lime in 
most states is 80 lb.; after this quantity is slaked, it 
will weigh from 150 to 160 lb., according to the quantity 
of water absorbed. In order to put on a given number 
of bushels per acre, the following figures showing the 
quantities and distances apart for the piles will be 
found useful: For an application of 20 bu. per acre, 
put ^ bu. heaps 11 steps apart each way, one step to be 
considered 3 ft.; for 25 bu. per acre, put the heaps 10 steps 
apart; for 30 bu., 9 steps; for 40 bu., 8 steps; for 50 bu., 
7 steps; and for 60 bu., 6 steps. 

The quantity of lime to use per acre varies. Heavy 
soils usually require more lime than light soils, very 
acid soils require more than only slightly acid soils, 
and some crops use more lime than others. Then, too, 
twice as much ground limestone should be used per 
acre as slaked lime. Lime containing impurities, or 
air-slaked lime that is not fresh, will not go as far as 
good water-slaked lime. As a rule, from 1 to 2 T. of 
water-slaked lime per acre are used and from 2 to 4 T. 
per acre of ground limestone. An application of 1 T. of 
slaked lime or 2 T. of limestone should give good results 
in soils not exceedingly heavy or acid. Supplying the 
soil with too much lime at one time is injurious, small and 
frequent applications being better than large ones. 



46 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 

When to Apply Lime to Soil. — As a top dressing for 
sod land, lime may be applied either in the spring or 
in the fall. The latter season is preferable, because 
the lime will have more time to work down into the 
soil than if applied in the spring. When sod land that 
is to be placed to corn is limed in the spring, it is a 
good plan to plow and roll the land before putting on 
the lime. After the lime has been applied it should be 
harrowed well into the soil. Although lime is not as 
beneficial to corn as it is to some other crops, it is 
helpful to the crop that follows corn. 

Lime should never be applied just before planting 
sugar beets or potatoes, as it will decrease the quantity 
of sugar in the beets and the percentage of starch in 
the potatoes. Neither should lime be applied at the 
same time that manure or commercial fertilizer is put 
on the soil, as it acts chemically with these substances 
and sets the nitrogen free. This danger may be avoided 
by applying the lime a few months before using the 
manure or fertilizer. 



TILLAGE 

BENEFITS OF TILLAGE 
Pulverization of the Soil.— One of the prime objects 
of tillage is to break the soil into fine particles. Soil, 
from lying dormant for months or perhaps years, be- 
comes packed and hard; it is first turned up by the 
plow and is then still further broken up by other 
instruments of tillage until it is divided into very 
minute particles, in which condition it is suitable for 
a seed-bed. Much of the plant-food present in a soil is 
liberated by this pulverization and made available for 
plants, and the fine soil grains are thoroughly mixed 
with manure, plant roots, and humus. Many of the 
living plant roots are shredded, torn, and broken by 
tillage so that they will not sprout again, but these 
broken roots are left in a condition to enrich the soil. 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 47 

Effects of Sunshine on Plowed Soil.— As soon as the 
plow or any of the lighter implements of tillage disturb 
the top layer of soil, the effects of sunshine on it can 
be noticed. The heat from the sun's rays soon dries 
out the upturned furrow slices and makes it possible 
for the air to enter. By this action, the soil begins to 
weather and change structure. In addition to the facts 
just mentioned, the soil is also sweetened, that is, 
made less acid, by the action of the sunshine. Then, 
too, many insects, and other vermin are destroyed by 
the excessive heat. There is a danger, however, of 
exposing the furrow to too much sunsine. For instance, 
if the furrow slices are left upturned for too long a 
time before the rolling and harrowing processes take 
place, the soil will be injured by drying out too much. 

Soil Aeration.— The drying of soil by sunshine makes 
more space for air to enter among the soil particles. 
This better aeration, as it is called, is very important 
for crop production. Without sufficient air in the soil, 
seeds cannot sprout or plants grow. Besides these uses, 
were it not for the air in the soil, there would be no 
decay of vegetable and animal matter. The presence of 
air also makes possible chemical changes, without which 
much of the plant-food of the soil would be kept in an 
unavailable condition. The air, too, is absolutely nec- 
essary for the use of soil bacteria. The sunshine can 
do the best work when the soil is prepared to receive 
the sun's heat. 

Increase of Water-Holding Capacity.— As tillage breaks 
up the soil into fine particles, it increases the amount 
of the soil surface exposed to the air. This being the 
case, the quantity of film water that a soil can hold 
is increased. The greSt importance of an increase in 
the film water held in a soil is obvious when it is re- 
membered that it is from film water that plant roots 
absorb the moisture for plant growth. 

There is always more or less loss of film water by 
evaporation from the surface. The damage done to 



48 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 

crops by such loss of moisture, especially during dry 
spells, is often considerable. There is a remedy, how- 
ever, by which the farmer can at least prevent excessive 
loss of moisture by evaporation. It has been found 
that if 2 or 3 in. of fine, loose soil is kept on the 
top of a cultivated field, that the quantity of moisture 
lost by evaporation is reduced to a minimum. Such a 
layer of loose soil, or dust mulch, as it is frequently 
called, can be secured by frequently stirring the surface 
soil with the implements of tillage. 

Lessening of Denitrification.— A certain kind of bac- 
teria called denitrifying bacteria exists in soil and causes 
available nitrogen compounds to become unavailable. 
The denitrifying bacteria work actively only where air 
is absent. In well-tilled soil, therefore, which contains 
plenty of air, denitrification practically ceases. 

These injurious bacteria live in manures and straws 
as well as in the soil, and if any of this vegetable 
material containing active denitrifying bacteria is 
plowed under a soil, and thorough tillage to supply air 
is not practiced, the bacteria will continue to do their 
destructive work of changing the available nitrates into 
unavailable forms of nitrogen. 

Mellowing of Soil.— A well-tilled soil is more mellow 
and friable than one not well tilled, the mellowness 
being due to the combined effects of tillage. Other 
things being equal, a mellow soil is a good crop- 
producing soil. 

All kinds of soil are more or less dependent on tillage 
operations to turn their characteristics into use. Rich 
soil, for example, will not respond with profitable crops 
without good tillage. Deep soil, too, is made better for 
crops by careful tillage. A hard soil — that is, one 
containing little or no plant-food — can be benefited by 
tillage, but only after plant-food in the shape of manure 
has been thoroughly mixed with the mineral matter of 
the soil. A soil that is thin, due to the lack of plant- 
food and humus, can be made deeper and more mellow. 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 4d 

provided plant-food and humus are well worked into it 
by deep tillage operations. A soil that is thin by 
reason of the nearness of the water-table can be made 
deeper and more mellow by first removing the surplus 
water by drainage and then practicing deep tillage. 
Heavy soils that do not pulverize easily are benefited 
by plowing them in the fall, and allowing the upturned 
furrows to remain exposed to the weather during the 
winter. 

There are soils, however, that are not benefited by 
tillage, and these are wet soils. The use of tillage 
implements on soils of this class will greatly injure 
their texture and make their surfaces lumpy and hard. 

Destruction of Weeds. — One of the important benefits 
of tillage is the destruction of weeds. Weeds are ex- 
pensive boarders; they are greedy eaters, excessive 
drinkers, and poor payers. They live on precisely the 
same kind of food that crops do, and, what is more, 
they take their food in the very same manner. Every 
weed acts as a pump; its roots bring water to the stalk 
from whence it is carried to the leaves, and is finally 
lost to the plant by escaping into the atmosphere. Such 
a drain of water and also of plant-food is very hard on 
the crops that are growing on the soil. Tillage comes to 
the aid of the farmer in the matter of weed destruction, 
and if the operations are carried on at the right time 
there need be but little loss of crop caused by weeds 
growing in the soil. 

TILLAGE OPERATIONS 

Plowing. — Plowing is the first important work neces- 
sary to prepare a suitable seed-bed for crops. It is the 
basis for all other mechanical operations connected with 
tillage. There is no other work done on a field that 
can be substituted for good plowing. Not one of the 
other operations of tillage, nor even all the rest com- 
bined, can make amends for poor plowing, so essential is 
the turning of the furrow slice to successful crop pro- 
duction. So important is plowing, that experienced 
4 



50 SOIL IMPROVEMENT 

farmers consider that, even in the most favorable season, 
the best soil and seed amount to but little unless the 
plowing is well done. 

Although the plowing of a field is done to prepare the 
seed-bed for the immediate crop, it influences future 
plowings and crops to a greater extent than is generally 
supposed. Often one bad plowing so injures a soil that 
a good seed-bed cannot be prepared until the soil has 
had several good plowings. Hence, the plowing of a 
field should always be done in the best manner possible. 

The depth to plow can, to a large extent, be regulated 
by the natural depth of the surface soil. A good rule to 
follow in this respect is to plow a little shallower than 
the soil depth. For instance, if the surface soil is 6 in. 
in depth, the rule is to plow 5 in. deep; and, if the soil 
is 5 in. in depth, to plow 4 or 4^ in. deep. But, if the 
soil is 10 in. deep, plow 7 or 8 in.; if 12 in. deep, 
plow 9 or 10 in. 

The width of plowing is largely regulated by the 
depth. It is impossible to plow a wide furrow and at 
the same time make it of shallow depth. An old rule 
in plowing is to make the furrow from 2 to 3 in. wider 
than it is deep. According to this rule, then, if the 
furrows are 4 in. deep, they should be 6 or 7 in. wide; 
or if 5 in. deep, they should be 7 or 8 in. wide. More 
modern practice, however, is to make the furrows as 
wide as is possible for the power in use to make them 
and still have the furrow slice well turned. Plowing 
is the most expensive part of tillage work, and it 
should be done as cheaply as possible; the wider the 
furrow, the less the cost of plowing a given area. 

Rolling.— The rolling of ground is often one of the 
most important of the tillage operations. In cases where 
it is desired to pack down a seed-bed, to crush clods, 
and to secure a fine dust mulch on ground, the roller 
is invaluable. However, no more injurious effect can 
proceed from the use of any implement of tillage than 
that from a farm roller used when the soil is too wet. 



SOIL IMPROVEMENT 51 

Soil in this condition is compressed into cakes that 
adhere to the roller and are removed with difficulty. 

Dragging. — The drag is used for leveling the uneven 
edges of the furrows after plowing, and also for com- 
pacting the ground. The drag is especially useful if 
the plowed ground has been left very rough. The action 
of the drag is to grind off and smooth the surface, not 
to roll it as is done with a roller. For smoothing dry, 
cloddy fields, the plank drag is much more effective 
than the roller, as the drag breaks the clods instead of 
pressing them deeper into the ground as is done when 
a roller is used. The plank drag is also employed to 
pulverize fields after they have been harrowed. In 
this connection it is especially useful if the harrows 
have failed to pulverize thoroughly the soil on the 
surface of the field. 

Harrowing.— After a field has been plowed and either 
rolled or dragged, it must be pulverized to make it light, 
fluffy, and smooth at the surface. This work is done by 
harrowing, which is for the purpose of putting the 
field in a smooth and well-finished condition for seeding. 
If a field is wet it is in no condition to be harrowed. 
The disturbing of the soil particles at such a time 
causes the soil to puddle rather than to crumble. A 
soil can, however, be too dry for harrowing; this is 
especially true if there are many clods on the field. 
Under such adverse conditions it is a saving of labor 
and a reduction of expense to wait for rain. Ground 
when frozen is also unfit for harrowing, as it will be 
chopped into lumps instead of being crumbled. 

The depth of harrowing is determined by the depth 
of plowing, the condition of the soil, the crop, and the 
season. The best average depth for harrowing is 3 in.; 
soil should never be harrowed to the depth it was 
plowed. If a soil is plowed to a depth of 5 in., for 
instance, it would not be wise to harrow it to a depth 
greater than 3H or 4 in., since the harrow teeth would 
come too close to the turned-under sod. 



52 GENERAL FARM CROPS 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 



WHEAT 

Wheat, according to the time of the year it is planted, 
is known as winter wheat or as spring wheat. The 
seed of winter wheat is planted in the fall; the seed 
of spring wheat is planted in the spring. 

Following is a brief description of the chief varieties 
of wheat: 

Fults wheat is a beardless soft winter wheat. It is 
extensively grown in the eastern part of the United 
States and Canada, and is noted for producing large 
yields. It is probably the most widely grown variety 
of wheat in the United States. 

Blue Stem wheat is a beardless hard spring wheat. It 
is extensively grown in Minnesota, where it has been 
found to give large yields of good quality. 

Mammoth Red wheat is a bearded soft winter wheat. It 
is grown in the eastern part of the United States and 
Canada. 

Purple Straw wheat is a beardless soft winter wheat. 
It is grown in the eastern and the southern part of 
the United States, particularly in the states south and 
west of North Carolina. 

Fife wheat is a beardless hard spring wheat. It is 
extensively grown in Minnesota, and, like Blue Stem 
wheat, has been found to produce large yields of good 
quality. 

Galgalos wheat is a beardless semihard wheat, grown 
as a spring wheat in the South, particularly in Oklahoma 
and New Mexico. 

Kharkov wheat is a bearded hard winter wheat. It is 
extensively grown in Kansas, Nebraska, and Oklahoma. 

Club wheat has a short, compact head, and is the 
wheat most widely grown in California, Oregon. 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 53 

Washington, and Idaho. The grain is white and exceed- 
ingly soft. 

Spelt, of which there are both spring and winter vari- 
eties, is a very ancient form of wheat that has been 
cultivated for centuries in Europe and Africa. In 
thrashing most other kinds of wheat all the chaff is 
removed, but in thrashing spelt a part of it remains on 
the grain. 

Enuncr is similar to spelt in that the chaff adheres to 
the grain after thrashing. 

Einkorn is supposed to resemble the original wild 
form of wheat from which all cultivated forms originated. 
The head in einkorn is much flattened and is heavily 
bearded, and the grains are somewhat angular in form. 

Seven-headed wheat is a species that is distinguished 
from the others by the branched head. It is known 
also by the names Egyptian, Mummy, Hundredfold, and 
Alaska. Agriculturally it is unimportant. 

Durum tvheat is a species that has been grown in the 
United States since 1901. It is well adapted for regions 
where the summers are hot and the atmosphere is dry, 
and is practically free from rust. Experience has 
shown that it is particularly adapted to the Dakotas, 
although it is now grown rather extensively in many of 
the other Western states. 

In the table on page 54 is given the date of the first 
sowing and harvesting, the date of the most general 
sowing and harvesting, and the date of the latest sowing 
and harvesting of wheat in several states of the United 
States. 

Loose smut on wheat is combated by placing the seed 
wheat in sacks, soaking it for 4 hr. in cold water, and 
allowing it to stand for 4 hr. or more in the wet sacks; 
it is then immersed for 5 min. in water having a tem- 
perature of 133° F., after which it is ready to be dried 
and sown. 

Stmking smut is combated by: (1) Placing the seed 
wheat in sacks and immersing it in water at 133° F. for 



54 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 






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GENERAL FARM CROPS 55 

10 min. and then cooling it by placing in cold water 
or by stirring the seed while drying. (2) Placing the 
seed in a solution of copper sulphate, made by dissolving 
1 lb. of the sulphate in 10 gal. of water; the seed is 
immersed in the solution for 10 min. and then drained 
for 10 min., after which it is spread out and dried. 
(3) Immersing the seed for 30 min. in a solution made 
by mixing 1 lb. of formalin with 50 gal. of water. 

One of the best methods of combating the chinch bug, 
which attacks wheat crops, is to plant some crop, such 
as millet, as a barrier between the wheat and the corn 
fields, and when the bugs are in this crop to spray it 
with kerosene and then plow the plants under. Another 
type of barrier is made by throwing two furrow slices 
together and forming a ridge, along the top of which 
there will be a slight depression; this depression is 
filled with coal tar, which the bugs are unable to pass. 
Holes are dug at intervals along the furrow next to the 
wheat field and the bugs, in passing to and fro in 
trying to find a way around the barrier, drop into these 
holes. Kerosene is poured into the holes occasionally, 
and as a result many of the bugs are killed. 

A practice often adopted by farmers to prevent ravages 
of the Hessian £y in the wheat crop is to delay the 
sowing of the wheat until after the flies are killed by 
early frosts. Another is to avoid the continuous crop- 
ping of wheat on the same land. Perhaps one of the 
best methods is to plant a strip of wheat along the 
edge of the regular wheat field somewhat earlier than 
the usual time of planting. The flies will then congre- 
gate in this strip, and as a result the regular field will 
not be ravaged. The burning of the wheat stubble is 
also an effective preventive. 



56 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 



OATS 

The average yield of the oat crop in the United States 
for several decades past has been a little over 27.5 bu. 
per acre. The Northern states produce larger crops per 
acre than do the Southern states. A few states report 
yields as high as 50 or more bu. per acre. Yields of 




Fig. 1 



Fig. 2 



60 to 70 bu. are considered to be high, although yields of 
100 bu. per acre have been reported. 

The average yield in the United States would be 
produced by three plants on each square foot of an 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 57 

acre, provided each plant produced three or four stalks 
and each stalk produced 40 grains of fair size. An oat 
crop is said to be well filled when each stalk bears 
from 30 to 150 grains. 

There are two distinct types of oats: (1) The spreading 
oats, as shown in Fig. 1, in which the branches bearing 
the grains spread in all directions from the main stalk, 
or straw; and (2) the side, or mane, oats, as shown in 
Fig. 2, on which all the branches bearing the grains 
hang on one side of the main stem. These two distinct 
types of oats may be subdivided as to time of planting 
into spring and winter oats; as to color, into white, 
black, gray, and red oats, and many variations of these 
colors; and as to shape of the grain, into short and 
plump oats, and long and slender oats. 

There are also a few varieties of oats, the hulls of 
which are so loose that they are separated from the 
kernels in thrashing. Such varieties are called naked 
oats. They are, however, poor yielders and are there- 
fore not extensively grown. 

The winter varieties of oats are those which are sown 
in the fall. They have been grown almost wholly in 
the South, but seem to be gaining favor in Northern 
sections. 

The spring varieties are those which are usually 
planted in the spring. They are grown almost entirely 
in the North. For Southern growers, the Red Rust 
Proof and Virginia Gray varieties are recommended. 
For planting in Northern United States, the varieties 
known as American Banner, Improved American, Badger 
Queen, Wide Awake, Colonel, Lincoln, Swedish Select, 
and Siberian have met with much success. In Canada, 
the Siberian variety is considered to be the best yielder. 

Oats thrive best in a cool, moist climate and in a 
soil that is not especially fertile, but in all instances 
the soil should be moist. 

Oats are inclined to grow too rank to produce a large 
quantity of straw and a comparatively small quantity 



58 GENERAL FARM CROPS 

of grain, and have a tendency to break over, or lodge, 
if they are grown on soils in a high state of fertility. 

The most severe damage to the oat crop is caused by 
oat smut. This disease causes a loss of from 5 to 50% in 
fields sown with untreated seed. The best way to 
combat the disease is to treat all seed oats with a 
fungicide and thus kill the spores of the smut. The 
treatments that are recommended for the stinking smut 
on wheat are recommended for oat smut. The formalin 
treatment, which is most commonly used, is as follows: 
A solution made up of 1 lb. of formalin to SO gal. of 
water is sprinkled over the oats at the rate of 1 gal. of 
solution to 4 bu. of grain. The grain is then mixed 
thoroughly by shoveling the oats into a conical pile, 
and is covered with blankets. After being covered for 
2 hr. the oats must either be sown or be spread out and 
dried. 



BARLEY 

The barley plant is similar to wheat in its general 
appearance and its habits of growth; barley grain re- 
sembles the oat grain, in that it consists of a kernel 
and a hull, except in the case of a few varieties known 
as hull-less barleys. 

Two distinct varieties of barley exist, namely, the 
tzi'o-rowed and six-rozved varieties. There are, however, 
other so-called varieties, known as four-rowed, hull-less, 
and beardless. 

Barley may be grown under more varied climatic con- 
ditions than any other grain crop; also, it requires less 
water for its production than any other grain crop, 
though an abundance of water does not materially re- 
tard its growth. It may be raised in nearly all parts 
of the United States and in some sections of Canada, 
and its cultivation is carried on successfully even in 
Alaska. But the soil, to grow barley successfully, 
should be well drained and fertile. 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 59 

The only insect that proves injurious to barley is the 
chinch bug. Smut attacks barley and as a preventative 
the seed barley should be treated as follows: Place the 
seed in sacks and soak it in cold water for 4 hr. ; 
then let it stand in the sacks for 4 hr. After this 
immerse the sacks with the grain in hot water at a 
temperature of 130° F. for 5 min. The grain should 
then be dried in the manner described for wheat. 



RYE 

Rye grows much taller than either wheat or barley, 
frequently attaining a height of 6 or 7 ft. The heads 
that bear the grain are longer and more slender than 
those of wheat, and are covered with beards, as are 
most of the barleys. Although rye kernels closely 
resemble those of wheat, they are longer, more slender, 
and more pointed at the end nearest the stem of the 
head. 

The annual yield of rye in the United .States is about 
14 bu. per acre. Yields of 20 to 25 bu. are considered 
to be fair, and those of 30 to 35 bu. are said to be good. 

Rye is naturally adapted to a cool climate and will 
thrive in climates that are too cold for wheat. How- 
ever, it is successfully grown in the warmer sections 
of the United States. It may be successfully grown in 
soils that are too poor in fertility to produce average 
yields of other grain crops. 



BUCKWHEAT 

Buckwheat is classed with grain crops, although it is 
a member of a family of plants that includes sorrel, 
smartweed. and bindweed. 

Buckwheat leaves the soil in which it is grown in a 
peculiarly mellow, crumbly condition, and for this 
reason, together with the fact that it will grow in almost 
any kind of soil, it is considered to be a soil improver. 



60 GENERAL FARM CROPS 

CORN 

Four general classes of corn are grown on a com- 
mercial scale. These are pop corn, flint corn, dent 
corn, and sweet corn. 

There are two general varieties of pop corn— Rice and 
Pearl. The grains of Rice pop corn are pointed at the 
top, and the ears are somewhat cone-shaped. The grains 
of Pearl pop corn are rounded at the top and the ears 
are cylindrical. 

The kernels of flint corn are hard and smooth. In 
shape they are nearly round. The width of grains varies 
in different varieties from 5^ to ^ in. The average 
depth in all varieties is about ^ in., and the thickness 
is about T/e in. In color, flint kernels are usually 
yellow, white, or red, although brown and purple 
varieties are known. 

The ears of flint corn vary in length from 4 to 18 in., 
the average length being from 7 to 10 in., and in 
diameter they vary from VA to 2 in. In most varieties 
of flint corn there are but eight rows of kernels on a 
cob, although ten, twelve, and even sixteen rows are 
found on some varieties. 

Among the leading varieties of flint corn may be 
mentioned Rhode Island White Flint, King Philip, 
90-Day Yellow Flint, Pennsylvania Yellow Flint, Long- 
fellow Flint, and Hall's Golden Nugget. 

The most widely distributed class of corn is dent corn, 
which gets its name from the fact that the kernels, 
when matured, are indented at the top. In color, dent 
kernels are generally yellow or white, although red and 
mixed yellow and red kernels are sometimes found. 

The ears of dent corn vary in different varieties from 
5 to 12 in. in length and from V/2 to 25^ in. in diameter. 
A medium sized ear weighs J/S lb. and a rather large- 
sized ear weighs ^ lb. The average number of rows of 
kernels on dent ears is from sixteen to twenty, although 
as few as eight and as many as forty-eight are some- 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 61 

times found. The size and shape of grains vary with 
the variety and with the position on the ear. 

Among the important varieties of dent corn are: 
Boon County White, Clarage, Funk's Yellow Dent, 
Hickory King, Hildreth, Hogue's Yellow Dent, Johnson 
County White, Kansas Sunflower, Leaming, Minnesota 
No. 13, Pride of the North, Reid's Yellow Dent, Silver 
King, and Silver Mine. 

The corn most widely cultivated for household use is 
szvcct corn. Part of the starch of sweet corn turns to 
sugar during the growth of the plant. The corn is, 
therefore, sweeter to the taste than other kinds of 
corn. The grains of sweet corn, when matured, are 
wrinkled at the surface, rather broad, and rounded at 
the top. In most varieties a typical grain is about 
1/2 in. long, % in. thick, and about 3/^ in. wide. 

Among the early varieties that are highly recom- 
mended are Early Golden Bantam, Marblehead, Crosby, 
Chicago Market, Early Landreth; among the medium 
varieties, Squantum, Maul's XX, Stabler's Early; and 
among the late varieties, Ne Plus Ultra, Stowell Ever- 
green, and Country Gentleman. 

The number of quarts of seed corn used per acre will 
vary largely with the size of the kernels. When planted 
three kernels to the hill with the hills 3 ft. 6 in. apart, 
from 4 to 4>^ qt. is the average quantity required to 
plant an acre; where four kernels are planted to the 
hill, the hills being 3 ft. 8 in. apart, about 5 to Syi qt. 
are required to plant an acre. 

Fig. 3 shows the United States divided into sections 
or corn zones, and in the table showing the varieties 
of corn grown for silage is given a list of some of 
the best-known varieties of corn for silage for each 
zone. 

The table on pages 64 and 65 gives the date of the 
earliest planting and harvesting, also the date of the 
most general and latest planting and harvesting of corn 
in several states of the United States. 



62 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 



63 



VARIETIES OF CORN GROWN FOR SILAGE IN 
DIFFERENT ZONES OF THE UNITED STATES 



Variety 




Length 
of Ear 
Inches 



Northern zone: 

Eariy Huron 

Longfellow Flint 

Pride of North 

Silver King 

Central zone: 

Boone County White 

Silver Mine 

McAuley 

Clarage 

Funk's Yellow Dent 

Golden Surprise 

Learning 

Reid's Yellow Dent 

Riley's Favorite 

Hogue's Yellow Dent 

Hildreth 

Southern zone: 

Boone County White 

Cocke Prolific 

Hickory King 

Red Cob Silage 

Mosby Prolific 

Virginia Silage 

Eastern zone: 

Hickory King 

Cocke Prolific 

Clarage 

Learning 

Longfellow Flint 

Sibley's Pride of the North 

Western zone: 

Minnesota King 

Dakota Dent 

Hickory King 



Yellow 
Yellow 
Yellow 
White 

White 
White 
White 
Yellow 
Yellow 
Yellow 
Yellow 
Yellow 
Yellow 
Yellow 
Yellow 

White 
White 
White 
White 
White 
White 

White 
White 
Yellow 
Yellow 
Yellow 
Yellow 

Yellow 
Yellow 
White 



7 to 8 
10 to 12 

7 to 8 

6 to 8 

9 to 11 

8 to 11 
10 to 11 

7 to 9 

9 to 11 
9 to 10 
9 to 10 
9 to 11 

8 to 9 

9 to 11 
10 to 11 

10 to 12 
8 to 9 
8 to 9 

10 to 12 
8 to 9 

10 to 12 

7 to 9 
7 to 9 

7 to 8 

8 to 10 
10 to 12 

7 to 8 

7 to 8 

7 to 8 

8 to 9 



64 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 



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66 GENERAL FARM CROPS 

The average yield per acre of corn in the United 
States is about 25 bu. ; a fair yield is 50 bu. ; 
a good yield, 75 bu. ; an excellent yield, 100 bu. ; and 
more than 125 bu. have been raised per acre. If corn 
is planted in hills 3 ft. 8 in.- apart each way there will 
be approximately 3,250 hills per acre, and if only one 
plant, or stalk, in each hill produced one medium-sized 
ear weighing ^^ lb. the yield per acre would be about 
23 bu. If two stalks in each hill produced a J^-lb. 
ear the yield would be 47 bu. However, if three stalks 
grew in each hill and each stalk produced a large-sized 
or a %-lb. ear the yield per acre would be more 
than 100 bu. 

The corn plant is injured by numerous insect pests 
among 'which are rootworms, root lice, cutworms, white 
grubs, earworms, stalk borers, chinch bugs, wireworms, 
and bill bugs. Corn smut appears in masses of black 
powdery spores on any part of the plant that is above 
ground, although the parts most likely to be affected 
are the ears and tassels. 

The best way thus far discovered for ridding corn 
plants of smut is to gather the masses of spores two 
or three times during the season and either burn them 
or place them in boiling water. The heat will kill the 
spores, and germination will be prevented. 



HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 

GRASSES 

Timothy.— Timothy in some localities is called herd's 
grass, but this name is confusing from the fact that the 
same name is sometimes used to designate red top. 
A seed-head of timothy is shown in Fig. 4. 

In value, timothy leads all other hay grasses grown 
in the United States. It is, however, nearly always 
sown with Red or Alsike clover, sometimes with both. 
When sown alone for hay, the quantity is about 15 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 



67 



lb., or Ys bu., per acre. If Red clover is included, 
the quantity of timothy seed is reduced. In this case, 
from 8 to 12 lb. of timothy is sown and about 8 lb. of 
clover. 

Timothy is sown at almost any time during the grow- 
ing season, but if sown alone, the sowing should be 
done in the fall, as the weather conditions at this time 
are the most favorable for successful seeding. 

Meadow Foxtail.— The grass known as Meadow fox- 
tail, a head of which is shown in Fig. 5, is a near 
relative of timothy and closely resembles it. Meadow 
foxtail, however, differs from timothy in that its habit 
of growth is slightly 
creeping. Meadow fox- 
tail is not common in 
the United States. 

Red Top.— Next to tim- 
othy, red top is doubtless 
the most important hay 
grass in North America. 
The plant is of a creep- 
ing habit, producing long 
underground stems. It 
grows rapidly from seed 
and quickly forms a 
dense, smooth sod. These 
latter characters make it particularly adapted for lawns 
and pastures, and it is consequently largely used for 
these purposes. The seed head is open and spreading, 
as will be seen in Fig. 6. Red top is sometimes mistaken 
for blue grass on account of the similarity of the heads 
of the two plants. 

Kentucky Blue Grass.— Probably the best-known pas- 
ture grass of the United States is Kentucky blue grass, 
also known in some sections as June grass. The first 
name doubtless had its origin in the fact that the plant 
grows luxuriantly in the limestone regions of Kentucky; 
the second name was given on account of the fact that 



Fig. 4 Fig. 5 




68 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 



the grass is at its best during the month of June. The 
plant is rather shallow rooted and strongly creeping in 
habit. When it becomes well established, it forms a 
fairly dense, even sod. The leaves are crowded near 
the base of the plant, and are light green in color. The 
end of the blade of blue grass is closed, giving the end 
of the leaf the appearance of the keel of a boat. A head 
of Kentucky blue grass is shown in Fig. 7. 

Canada Blue Grass.— Canada blue grass very closely 

resembles Kentucky blue grass, but the stem of the 

former is more zigzag than that 

of the latter and the seed head 

of the Canada blue grass, which 

^j, __ is illustrated in Fig. 8, is more 

J^^^w^^^ 1^ flattened and is not so spread- 

^^^ *^ «^«» ing as in the Kentucky blue 

grass. 

Smooth Brome Grass.— Smooth 
brome grass is strongly creep- 
ing in habit and a coarse 
grower, under favorable condi- 
tions reaching a height of from 
4 to 5 ft., and forming a dense 
sod from 6 to 8 in. thick. The 
leaves are coarse, being from ^ to >^ in. wide, and often 
reach a length of 1 ft. The seed head is in the form of 
a long, spreading panicle, as will be seen from Fig. 9. 
The seeds are among the largest of those of the cul- 
tivated grasses, often being ^ in. in length. 

Orchard Grass. — Orchard grass is a common grass in 
some sections of the United States. The grass probably 
derives its name from its ability to thrive under the 
shade of trees, although it does not appear to grow 
better in the shade than in the open. It is not creeping 
in habit like blue grass, but has a habit of growth 
similar to that of timothy. The plant does not form 
an even sod like many other grasses, but grows in 
raised clumps, making a very uneven and bunchy sod. 




Fig. 7 



Fig. 8 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 69 

The coarse, light-green leaves are mostly produced near 
the ground. It will be seen from Fig. 10 that the 
panicle is somewhat spreading, with the flowers clus- 
tered in what are known as tufts. 

Meadow Fescue. — Meadow fescue somewhat resembles 
brome grass when in blossom. Its habit of growth, 
however, is not at all similar to that of brome grass, 
as it is not a creeping plant. Meadow fescue can be 
distinguished from most other grasses by its shiny. 




m 



Fig. 9 






^^ 



Fig. 10 



bright-green leaves. A seed head of Meadow fescue is 
shown in Fig. 11. 

Tall Oat Grass.— Tall oat grass is related to the com- 
mon cultivated oat plant. A seed head of tall oat grass 
is illustrated in Fig. 12. The grass is known also as 
Meadow oat grass, and in some localities as Evergreen. 
This last name is used in the southern part of the 
United States, where this grass remains green through- 
out the year. Tall oat grass grows to a height of from 
3 to 5 ft., and forms clumps like orchard grass. 



70 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 



Bermuda Grass. — In the southern part of the United 
States, Bermuda grass is a favorite. The plant repro- 
duces from seed and from creeping 
stems on or just below the surface 
of the ground. The main prostrate 
stem may extend 4 or 5 ft. during 
the season and send out several 
lateral branches a foot or two in 
length. At intervals of an inch or 
two, the stems take root. A flower- 
ing stem is shown in Fig. 13. The 
stems grow from a few inches to 
2 ft. in height, depending on the 
soil and the climate. The habit of 
the grass is to form a dense sod, 
which bears trampling by cattle. It 
does not produce seed in the United 
States except in the extreme South. 
Italian Rye Grass.— Italian rye 
grass, a head of which is shown in 
Fig 11 ^*^" ^'^' ^^^'^^^s ^^ maturity a height 
of from 2 to 3 ft. It is a short- 
lived grass, lasting but 1 yr., or, at best, 2 yr. 

Perennial Rye Grass.— Perennial rye grass, often 

known as English rye grass, is said to have been the 

first of the true grasses domesticated for hay and 

I pasture purposes. This grass grows 

I / from 1 to 2 ft. in height, and is 

>t tjjr adapted to both pastures and 

^^'^<:^/^ "meadows. 

^"■^^jp^ Johnson Grass.— In the southern 

part of the United States, Johnson 
grass is grown to some extent for 
hay and pasture, although it is 
probably more often looked on as 
an undesirable weed than as a useful plant. 

Johnson grass often grows from 4 to 7 ft. high and 
produces seed on a spreading head, as shown in Fig. 15. 



Fig. 13 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 



71 



Velvet Grass. — Velvet grass is a low-growing variety 
that reaches a height of about 2 ft. It derives its name 
from the downy character of the leaves and other parts. 
This character makes it distasteful to horses and cattle. 
It is said that these animals will nearly starve before 
acquiring a liking for velvet grass, but when once 
accustomed to it they thrive remarkably well on it. 

Quack Grass.— Quack grass is usually regarded as a 
weed wherever it is common. It spreads by underground 
stems in much the same manner 
as Johnson grass. In spite of 
its weedy character, it is often 
utilized as a hay and pasture 

grass. 

Texas Blue Grass.— 

Texas blue grass is a 

close relative of Ken- 
tucky blue grass and 

has similar habits. 

It is a grass of south- 
ern origin and 

adapted to southern 

conditions, although 

it is grown as far 

north as Tennessee. 

It is used for both 

meadows and pas- 
ture and in some cases it is used successfully for lawns. 
The Millets.— The millets grown in North America 
are generally classed in four groups, only two of which 
are of importance in the United States as hay. These 
two groups are the foxtail millets and the broom-corn 
millets, specimens of which are illustrated in Fig. 16. 
The three important varieties of the foxtail millets are 
Common millet, shown in (a); German millet, shown in 
(c) ; and Hungarian grass, shown in (d). 

Sorghum.— Although sorghum is generally used for 
another purpose, namely, that of producing sirup, it has 




Fig. 



Fig. 15 



72 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 




Fig. 16 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 



73 



great value as a hay crop in many parts of the country. 

Kafir Corn.— Kafir corn is a variety of sorghum, 
although it does not have the sugar-producing qualities 
of the latter. It is most commonly grown for the grain, 
but is sometimes planted for hay in the same manner 
as sorghum. It is especially adapted to the semiarid 
sections, as it is able to endure extreme heat and 
drought. 

Teosinte.— Teosinte is an annual grass that much re- 
sembles Indian corn in habit of growth; it is of tropical 
origin, and consequently not adapted to northern con- 
ditions. It is grown rather extensively in the southern 
part of the United States. 

LEGUMES 

Nearly all leguminous plants have certain common 
characteristics. The leaves are arranged around the 
stem in regular order — not two-rowed as in grasses. 
The leaf consists of a stalk and leaflets. All legumes 
have a common form of 
blossom, examples being 
sweet peas, garden peas, 
and beans. The root 
system of legumes com- 
prises a large central 
root, called a tap root, 
from which numerous 
branches are sent out at 
varying distances. The 
roots of all legumes un- 
der favorable conditions 
bear tubercules, or nod- 
ules, which are caused 
by certain forms of bac- 
teria that live in the 
soil. They have the 
power of assimilating the 
free nitrogen of the soil 
it to the root tubercules. 




Fig. 17 

atmosphere and of transferring 



74 GENERAL FARM CROPS 

Red Clover. — Red clover is the most important legu- 
minous crop in the United States and is especially 
valuable as feed for milch cows, sheep, and in fact 
almost all classes of growing animals. It is not so 
suitable for horses because it is liable to contain too 
much dust. In purchasing Red-clover seed, care should 
be taken to secure seed free from such adulterants as 
Yellow trefoil, dodder. Curled dock. Sheep sorrel, Lamb's 
quarters, and Green foxtail. 

Experiments have 
proved that a crop of 
Red clover yielding 
4,900 lb. of dry matter 
per acre will leave in 
the soil from roots 
and stubble 44 lb. of 
nitrogen, 32 lb. of 
potash, and 13 lb. of 
phosphoric acid. 

The stem, leaves, 
and blossoms of a 
Red clover plant are 
shown in Fig. 17. 

Perhaps the worst 
enemy of clover is 
the dodder plant, 
which is a tawny yel- 
low plant that twines 
about the clover 
plant, as shown in 
Fig. 18, and on which 
it lives. 

Fig. 18 Mammoth Red 

Clover.— Mammoth Red clover, also called Mammoth 
clover, Perennial Red clover, and Pea vine clover, is a 
variety of ordinary Red clover, differing from it in a few 
respects only. It is larger and coarser than Red clover, 
is a longer-lived plant, and matures 3 or 4 wk. later. 




GENERAL FARM CROPS 75 

Alsike Clover.— Alsike clover, a plant of which is 
shown in Fig. 19, has not attained the wide reputation 
that Red clover has, and is seldom a competitor with 
it where the latter can be grown successfully. But it 
is especially well adapted to land too wet for Red 
clover 




Fig. 19 

Alsike clover may be used for the same purpose as 
Red clover, and matures at about the same time. It is 
often used in a mixture with Red clover to make certain 
that there will be at least a partial crop in case the 

latter fails. 



76 GENERAL FARM CROPS 

Crimson Clover. — Crimson clover, a plant of which is 
shown in Fig. 20, diflFers from the other clovers in that 
it runs its life history in less than a year from seeding. 
This variety of clover is not likely to be hardy in 
northern latitudes; hence, it is not planted extensively 
north of the 40th parallel. It is grown most extensively 
in the South Atlantic States. 




White Clover.— White clover, also called Dutch clover, 
is a small plant of creeping habit. It is very common 
in pastures and lawns. The stems of the plant are 
prostrate, but at intervals, blossoms and leaves are 
produced that assume an upright habit of growth, as is 
well illustrated in Fig. 21. The root system of White 
clover is much shallower than the root system of other 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 



77 



clovers; also, there is not so deep a tap root as is 
produced by either Red or Alsike clover. 

White clover is less affected by climatic conditions 
than Red clover and is better adapted to moist, rich 
soils than to soils that are too dry. For this reason, 
it makes better growth during wet seasons than during 
dry seasons. It is one of the best plants for pasture 
and lawn purposes, for which it is most largely used. 




Fig. 21 



hay 
im- 



Alfalfa.— Among the leguminous plants used as 
and pasture crops, alfalfa is probably second in 
portance. It is a strongly growing branching perennial, 
which, at full maturity, may have a height of 3 or 4 ft. 
As shown in Fig. 22, which illustrates an old root that 
is starting a new growth, alfalfa has a large tap root, 
which grows directly downwards. Under favorable con- 
ditions the tap roots often reach a depth of from 12 to 



78 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 



14 ft,, depending on the character of the soil and the 

depth of the permanent water-table. 

Alfalfa is used as a 
feed for cattle, 
horses, sheep, swine, 
and poultry. It is 
used as pasture, as 
hay, as silage, and 
as a soiling crop. 
About four-fifths of 
the alfalfa grown in 
the United States is 
made into hay. Some- 
times the hay is 
ground into meal and 
sold as alfalfa meal. 
Alfalfa is a par- 
ticularly desirable 
feed for young stock, 
because it contains a 
large percentage of 
protein, which is es- 
sential for growth of 
young animals. It is 
also a good roughage 
for beef cattle. It 
has been determined 
that 1 acre of alfalfa 
will produce from 562 
lb. to 706 lb. of beef 
annually. 

In the eastern half 
of the United States 
it is usually neces- 
sary, for the success- 




FiG. 22 



ful growing of alfalfa, to inoculate the soil with the 
proper nodule-forming bacteria. 

Cowpeas.— The cowpea is an annual leguminous plant 
that is grown extensively in the South and is used 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 



79 



largely to take the place of forage crops and of grain 
as feed for all kinds of farm animals. The feeding 
value of cowpeas is very high, as they are rich in 
protein. 

Above . ground there may be considerable variation in 
this plant, but there are only two general forms. One 
form is decidedly bushy 
in habit of growth; the 
other is of a trailing 
form. The bushy forms 
may grow to only 1 ft. or 
so in height; the trailing 
forms may extend only 
a few feet along the 
ground or they may ex- 
tend 15 or 20 ft. 

In Fig. 23 is shown a 
young cowpea plant with 
two seed pods. 

Soybeans. — The s o y- 
bean, also known as soja 
bean, is an erectly grow- 
ing plant of from 2 to 
4 ft. in height. As 
shown in Fig. 24, the 
leaves are composed of 
three large leaflets borne 
at the end of a stem. 
This stem is often from 
10 to 12 in. in length. 
The leaves, stems, and Fig. 23 

pods are covered with stiff, reddish hairs. As with 
alfalfa and cowpeas, the leaflets are the most valu- 
able part of the plant when it is used as forage. 
The seeds are nearly globular, usually more or less 
compressed, and in color range from whitish to brown 
and black. In some varieties they are yellowish; in 
others green. The plant is prolific and will produce as 
many as 200 pods containing about 450 seeds. Root 




80 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 



nodules, which are often as large as small peas, are 
borne in great profusion. The amount of nitrogen 
added to the soil by a crop of soybeans is large. It 
is believed that the proper nodule-forming bacteria are 
often wanting in the soils of the United States, unless 
provided artificially. 
Vetches. — The vetches commonly grown in the United 




Fig. 24 

States are of two kinds: the Hairy vetch, also known as 
the Sand vetch; and the Common vetch. The leaf of 
these plants is composed of about eight pairs of leaflets 
arranged in pairs along the sides of the midrib. The 
stems of the plants trail on the ground unless they are 
supported by an upright plant. Both kinds of vetches 
make excellent green-manure crops. 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 81 

Field Peas.— Field peas are an important crop in 
Canada. Although they are not grown so extensively 
in the United States, they are doubtless well adapted 
to various portions of the country. 

Miscellaneous Legumes.— Other leguminous plants that 
are occasionally grown are: Japan clover, Florida beggar 
weed, Sweet clover. Yellow trefoil or Black medic. 
Bur clover, and Velvet bean. 



POTATOES 

The common potato is the enlarged, fleshy, underground 
stem, known as the tuber, of the potato plant. Although 
the tubers are widely known as Irish potatoes, the 
plant is a native of America. Aside from its universal 
culture in home gardens, the potato constitutes an 
important field crop, ranking next to rice as a food 
product for the human race. It is also extensively used 
for feeding to domestic animals. In those sections of 
America where potatoes are most largely grown, the 
small and the badly diseased potatoes, that is, the un- 
marketable portion of the crop, are used for the manu- 
facture of starch, and in certain sections of Europe 
large yields of comparatively small tubers are grown 
especially for the manufacture of starch and of alcohol. 

The average yield of potatoes in the United States 
for several decades past has been 83 bu. per acre. It 
takes about 15 bu. of seed potatoes cut into 1 oz. pieces 
to plant 1 acre, provided the rows are spaced 3 ft. apart 
and there is a space of 12 in. between the hills in the 
rows. If each seed piece grew and produced two 4-oz. 
potatoes, which are only medium-sized potatoes, 1 acre 
would yield 121 bu. of marketable potatoes. If each 
hill should produce eight 4-oz. potatoes, or 2 lb., as 
every grower should endeavor to have the crop yield, 
1 acre would yield 484 bu. of marketable potatoes. 

Among the thousands of varieties of potatoes that have 
been developed the following may be considered as 



82 GENERAL FARM CROPS 

standard: Bliss, Triumph, Bovee, Burpee, Extra Early, 
Crown Jewel, Early Ohio, Early Rose, Early Thorough- 
bred, Eureka, Norton Beauty, Reliance, Six-Weeks' 
Market, Beauty of Hebron, Irish Cobbler, Polaris, White 
Elephant, Burbank, Carman Number 3, Freeman, Green 
Mountain, Peachblow, Pearl, Rural New Yorker Num- 
ber 2, Sir Walter Raleigh, State of Maine, Snowflake, 
and Vermont Gold Coin. In a general way, the varieties 
are mentioned in the order of their earliness of matiirity. 
Some varieties, however, mature much earlier in one 
section of the country than in another. 

The principal diseases of potatoes are early blight, late 
blight, and scab. The blights destroy the foliage of the 
plants and thus materially reduce the yield, and the 
scab attacks the tubers. The blights are prevented by 
spraying with Bordeaux mixture. There is no standard 
formula for this mixture; however, a good Bordeaux 
may be made up of the following: 5 lb. of copper 
sulphate, 5 lb. of fresh quicklime, and 50 gal. of water. 
If to this mixture 1 lb. of Paris green or 3 lb. of 
arsenate of lead are added the mixture will be effective 
in killing the potato bug, the most common insect pest 
of the potato. 

The percentage of scabby potatoes in the crop produced 
can be materially decreased by disinfecting the seed 
potatoes by soaking them, before cutting, for 2 hr. in 
a solution consisting of >4 pt. of formalin and 15 gal. of 
water, or for 1^ hr. in 2 oz. of corrosive sublimate 
•dissolved in 15 gal. of water. 



ROOT CROPS 

The principal plants that are grown as farm crops for 
their fleshy roots are mangel wurzels, beets, turnips, 
rutabagas kohlrabi, carrots, parsnips, and artichokes. 

Mangel Wurzels.— Among the best known varieties 
of mangel wurzels, or cattle beets, or field beets, are the 
Norbiton Giant, Gate Post, Golden Tankard, and Yellow 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 85 

Globe. These are grown almost entirely as feed for 
livestock. 

Sugar Beets.— Sugar beets are grown both for the 
manufacture of sugar and as feed for livestock. The 
leading variety grown for sugar production is the 
Kleinwenzlebener. The leading varieties grown for 
stock feed are Lane's Imperial, Danish Red Top, and 
Danish Improved. 

Turnips.— Three members of the turnip family are 
commonly grown as farm crops, namely, the common 
turnip, the rutabaga, and the hybrid turnip, which is a 
cross of the common turnip and the rutabaga. Some 
of the most-used varieties of common turnips are: 
Purple Top, White Globe, Golden Ball, Snow Ball, 
Strap Leaf, and Cow Horn. 

In general appearance and habits of growth rutabagas 
are much the same as common turnips. They are used 
both as vegetables for human food and as a feed for 
stock. Two common varieties of rutabagas are the 
Purple Top and the Green Top. 

Rutabagas are larger than common turnips and will 
yield twice as much bulk per acre, for which reasons 
they are grown more extensively as a root crop for 
stock feeding. One of the most apparent differences 
between the turnip and rutabaga is that the latter has 
a greater development at the crown, producing a distinct 
neck which the turnip does not have. 

Kohlrabi.— Kohlrabi is a plant that is frequently re- 
ferred to as the turnip-headed cabbage, for the only 
part used is the enlarged fleshy stem that grows above 
ground. 

The two most common varieties are the White Vienna 
and the Purple Vienna. 

Carrots. — The carrot is grown for human food and as a 
feed for livestock, particularly for horses. The juices 
of some varieties are used for coloring butter and the 
seed is employed in the manufacture of some kinds of 
liquor. 



84 GENERAL FARM CROPS 

Parsnips.— The parsnip is a hardy plant that is widely 
grown in the United States for human food, and to 
some extent as a feed for horses. In European coun- 
tries, it is valued highly as a cattle feed. Since the 
roots grow entirely under the soil, harvesting is more 
difficult than with most other root crops, and as the 
roots are comparatively small it is not likely that it 
will ever become popular in the United States as a 
crop for livestock. 

Jerusalem Artichokes.— The Jerusalem artichoke is a 
native of the United States. In its habit of growth 
it resembles a small sunflower and belongs to the same 
botanical family. It has a coarse foliage and grows 
very rank. The artichoke is seldom planted with the 
expectation that it will be grown but 1 yr. Usually 
a field is devoted to it for several years, in some cases 
as many as 7 years. 

TOBACCO 

The tobaccos grown most widely in the United States 
are the White Burley, grown in Kentucky and small 
areas in neighboring states; Export, or heavy, tobacco, 
grown in the Middle West and in Maryland; Bright 
Yellow tobacco, grown chiefly in Virginia and the 
Carolinas; Sun-Cured tobacco, raised to a very limited 
extent in Virginia; Perique, which has a wide reputa- 
tion, but is raised only in a small area in Louisiana; 
and cigar tobaccos. 

All of the tobaccos named, except cigar tobaccos, are 
used in the manufacture of chewing, cigarette, and pipe 
tobaccos and are known as manufacturing tobaccos. 
However, a portion of the Export tobacco is used in 
foreign countries for the manvifacture of cigars. 

The cigar tobaccos are classed according to their use 
as cigar-filler, cigar-binder, and cigar-wrapper tobaccos. 

Cigar tobaccos are raised in two distinct zones in the 
United States. The northern zone includes a large 
portion of the Connecticut River valley in the states 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 



85 



of Connecticut and Massachusetts; two districts in 
New York, embracing Chemung and Onondaga and por- 
tions of adjoining counties in one, and Tioga and por- 
tions of adjoining counties in the other; Lancaster and 
adjoining counties in Pennsylvania; Montgomery and 
Miami and portions of adjoining counties in Ohio; and 
small areas in Southern and Western Wisconsin. The 
southern zone includes Gadsden County, Florida, with 
the adjacent county of Decatur in Georgia and small por- 
tions of adjoining counties; and small areas in Southern 
Alabama, and Anderson and Nacogdoches counties, 
Texas. 



SOILING CROPS 

Crops that are cut and fed green to livestock, either 
in the stable or the feed lot, are called soiling crops. The 
practice of feeding such crops is known as soiling. 
Soiling may be either partial or complete, depending on 
whether the feeding is practiced simply to supplement 
pastures or to supply all of the green feed used by the 
animals. Often several soiling crops are grown on the 
same land in a single season and each soiling crop 
produces a large quantity of feed per acre. 

In the accompanying table is given a suggested list of 
crops and the acreage required in a partial soiling 
system for soiling 20 cows during the usual dry period 

PARTIAL SOILING SYSTEM FOR 20 COWS 



Kind of Crop 


Area to be 
Seeded 
Acres 


Time of Feeding 


Oats and peas 


H 

3 

1 
2 

T 
3 


July 4 to Aug. 1 
Aug. 1 to 20 




Millet 

Com 

Rape 


Aug. 10 to 20 
Aug. 20 to Sept. 5 
Aug. 15 to Oct. 15 


Clover (second crop) 


Sept. 1 to Oct. 1 



86 



GENERAL FARM CROPS 



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GENERAL FARM CROPS 



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FRUIT CULTURE 89 

from Aug. 1 to Oct. 15, in a region where blue-grass 
pastures prevail. In this plan, the soiling crops are 
depended on to supplement the pasture until corn 
silage is available, silage being used through the winter. 

In the table on page 86 is given a complete suc- 
cession of soiling crops, together with the rate and time 
of seeding, and the feeding period. The system given in 
this table is used in the New England states for the 
complete soiling of a herd of 20 cows from May to Oct. 

In the table on page 87 is given a system used in 
Wisconsin, for a herd of 20 cows; the table on page 88 
is a system applying to conditions in New Jersey and 
near-by territory and furnishes green feed for 20 cows 
for a period of 6 mo. 

These tables are not intended as absolute guides, but 
are for the purpose of giving a correct idea of the 
essentials of a soiling system and to emphasize the 
importance of a complete and orderly succession of crops. 



FRUIT CULTURE 



SPRAYS FOR FRUIT PLANTS 

INSECTICIDES 

Arsenate of Lead.— Arsenate of lead is a much-used 
poisonous insecticide that contains very little soluble 
arsenic; it stays in suspension well, is not easily 
washed from plant foliage by rain, and has some 
value as a fungicide. It is sold as a paste and as a 
powder. The paste form is used at the rate of 2, 3, 
or 4 lb. to 50 gal. of water, the exact quantity de- 
pending on the pest to be combated. Half as much of 
the powdered form as of the paste form is required. 

Paris Green. — Paris green is an arsenical poison easily 
recognized by its green color. It contains a higher 



90 FRUIT CULTURE 

percentage of soluble arsenic than arsenate of lead. It 
should not be used on peaches, cherries, or plums. Often 
used as a potato spray. Generally used in the form of a 
spray consisting of 1 lb. to from 75 to 150 gal. of water. 

Arsenite of Lime.— Arsenite of lime is an arsenical 
spray that is cheaper than arsenate of lead or Paris 
green, but its use is likely to be attended with spray 
injury. Made by boiling 1 lb. of white arsenic and 
2 lb. of good lime in 2 gal. of water for 40 min. Water 
to make 300 gal. of spray is added. 

London Purple.— London purple is a by-product in the 
manufacture of aniline dyes. Varies greatly in com- 
position, and for this reason is not often used in 
orchard work. Used in the same proportion and in 
the same way as Paris green. 

Hellebore.— Hellebore is a poison made from the 
powdered roots of hellebore. Recommended as a substi- 
tute for arsenical poisons where insects must be com- 
bated on nearly ripe fruit. May be applied dry 
mixed with from 5 to 10 parts of flour or lime, or as a 
spray consisting of 1 oz. of hellebore to 1 gal. of water.- 

Lime-Sulphur. — Lime-sulphur is a contact insecticide 
made by boiling stone lime and powdered sulphur. 
Used as a spray on dormant trees at 1.03 sp. gr. for 
scale insects, especially the San Jose scale. Also used 
as a fungicide at 1.007 to 1.01 sp. gr. Concentrated 
lime-sulphur may be purchased or may be made at 
home by using the proportion of 1 lb. of lime, 1 lb. pow- 
dered sulphur to 1 gal. of water and boiling for 1 hr. 
The concentrated mixture should be tested with a 
hydrometer and water added to give the specific gravity 
required for the spray. 

Miscible Oil.— Oil that has been chemically treated 
so that it will combine with water to make a uniform 
mixture is called miscible oil. Such oils are used 
successfully as contact insecticides. Many brands of 
miscible oils are on the market. Miscible oil is often 
used as a spray for the San Jose scale. 



FRUIT CULTURE 91 

Kerosene Emulsion.— Kerosene emulsion is a contact 
insecticide, similar in nature to miscible oil. Made 
from kerosene with soap as an emulsifier. Much used 
for combating plant lice. It is made by dissolving 1 lb. 
of soap in 1 gal. of water and adding 2 gal. of kerosene 
and churning with a force pump until a butter-like 
mass is formed. To this is added water in different 
proportions for spraying. 

\ Distillate Oils.— Distillates are made from oil taken 
ifrom wells in the western part of the United States. 
Used either as an emulsion or in the form of a mechan- 
ical mixture. Used for combating scale insects. 

Tobacco Extracts and Decoctions.— Tobacco extracts 
and decoctions are spray materials made from tobacco 
waste. Much used for plant lice and other sucking in- 
sects. Many proprietary tobacco decoctions are on the 
market, and these, when applied in accordance with the 
directions that accompany the packages, will generally 
prove satisfactory. May be made at home by steeping 
1 lb. of tobacco in 1 gal. of water. 

FUNGICIDES 

Bordeaux Mixture.— Bordeaux mixture is a much-used 
fungicide made from copper sulphate and lime. Can 
be used successfully on most fruit and vegetable crops. 
Sometimes causes injury to fruit and foliage of apple 
and other fruit trees. The copper sulphate, lime, and 
water are combined in different proportions, depending 
on the plant to be sprayed and the fungus to be com- 
bated. The strength of Bordeaux mixture is designated 
by figures giving the proportions of the ingredients and 
followed by the name Bordeaux. For example, 6 : 6 : 50 
Bordeaux means that the proportions of the mixture 
are 6 lb. of copper sulphate, 6 lb. of lime, and 50 gal. of 
water; 3 : 4 : 50 means that the proportions are 3 lb. of 
copper sulphate, 4 lb. of lime, and 50 gal. of water. 

Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate.— Ammoniacal copper 
carbonate is a solution made from copper carbonate 6 oz., 



92 FRUIT CULTURE 

ammonia 3 pt. and water to make 50 gal. This solution 
does not cause injury to fruit as Bordeaux mixtures does, 
and for this reason its use on ripe fruit may some- 
times be advisable, but it is more injurious to the tree 
than Bordeaux mixture and is not so effective. 

Sulphur Dust.— Sulphur in the form of dust has con- 
siderable value as a fungicide. It is used principally 
to combat powdery mildew on certain kinds of fruit. 

Potassium Sulphide.— A spray of some value as a fungi- 
cide is made by dissolving from 2 to 3 oz. of potassium 
sulphide, sometimes called liver of sulphur, in 10 gal. 
of water. It is of value principally for powdery mildew 
on berry plants. 

Lime-Sulphur. — During recent years dilute lime-sulphur 
is being used as a summer fungicide to replace Bordeaux 
mixture for many classes of fruit plants. It is claimed 
that lime-sulphur does not cause injury to fruit as does 
Bordeaux mixture. 

Self-Boiled Lime-Sulphur.— Self-boiled lime-sulphur is 
a mechanical mixture of lime and sulphur. A small 
quantity of the sulphur becomes dissolved in the mix- 
ture, and it is this sulphur that gives the preparation 
its fungicidal property. Much used as a summer spray 
for peaches. It is made by adding sufficient water to 
lime to start slaking and then sifting in sulphur. 
Water is added to keep up the slaking and the mixture 
is thoroughly stirred. When slaking is complete enough 
cold water must be added to cool the mixture at once. 
The proportion of 6 lb. of sulphur, 6 lb. of lime to 
50 gal. of water is generally used in making the com- 
pound, but other proportions are sometimes recom- 
mended. 



FRUIT CULTURE 93 



APPLES 

VARIETIES OF APPLES 

Summer Varieties.— Among the most important sum- 
mer varieties of apples are the following: 

Yellow Transparent: Summer apple; good variety for 
the home orchard. Tree is rather a slow grower, but 
bears at an early age; often 2- or 3-year-old trees 
will set considerable fruit. Fruit, above medium in 
size, beautiful clear yellowish white in color; flesh, 
white, juicy, with a pleasant flavor. Skin somewhat 
tender; fruit should be picked often in order to be 
marketed in good condition. 

Early Harvest: One of the oldest and most widely 
disseminated varieties of summer apples in America. 
Tree, vigorous and healthy; comes into bearing rather 
young. Fruit, medium size; pale yellow; pleasant; of 
very good quality. 

Red Astrachan: Widely known variety of summer 
apple. Tree, medium size, fairly vigorous, although in 
some sections it is not very productive. Fruit, medium 
to large size; red splashes over greenish or greenish 
yellow; a little too sour for dessert, but excellent for 
cooking. Apples mature unevenly; are very perishable; 
and are not well suited for long shipment. 

Oldenburg : Adapted to a cool climate, but widely dis- 
seminated; considered one of the most important of 
summer apples. Tree, rather a slow grower; medium 
in size; bears when young; prolific in most localities. 
Fruit, medium to large; roundish to oblate; yellowish, 
almost completely covered with irregular splashes and 
stripes of red; stands shipment fairly well; generally 
in demand on the market. 

Gravenstein : Summer variety that is fairly well known 
in most sections. Tree, strong, vigorous, spreading. 
Fruit, medium to large; roundish oblate; red and yellow 
striped. Flesh, yellowish; firm; quality very good. 



94 FRUIT CULTURE 

Fall and Winter Varieties.— Several of the important 
varieties of apples suitable for fall and winter use are: 

Fall Pippin: Tree, large; moderately vigorous; long 
lived. Fruit, large; yellowish-green; of good quality, but 
ripens unevenly, the first often being ready in September 
and the last not ripening until a few weeks later. A 
desirable variety for home and commercial orchards. 

Alexander: Fall, or in some places a late summer 
apple, grown especially in the eastern apple-growing 
regions. Tree, a strong grower; bears at an early age. 
Fruit, round, conic, or oblate conic; very large; coarse 
in texture; of fair quality; greenish yellow almost cov- 
ered with red stripes; ripens early in July in Vir- 
ginia and continues until Sept. or Nov. in New York. 

IVolf River: Similar to the Alexander. Tree, fairly 
vigorous; large; spreading; comes into bearing rather 
late. Fruit, large; broad; flat at the base; round; 
slightly conic; bright red and yellowish stripes blushed 
with deep red. Flesh yellowish; somewhat coarse; 
juicy; of only fair to good quality. On account of their 
high color and good size the apples are in good demand 
on the market. Fruit may be kept until Dec. in a cool 
cellar or until Jan. in cold storage. 

Wealthy: An important fall apple extensively grown 
in the Central States and to some extent in the Eastern 
States. Tree, hardy and thrifty when young, but with 
maturity it becomes a rather slow grower. Fruit, me- 
dium to large; roundish oblate; of good quality; heavily 
striped with red over light yellow or green. Flesh, 
white, sometimes tinged with red. 

Fameuse: An old variety decidedly adapted to North- 
ern regions. Tree, of medium size; a moderate grower; 
healthy and long lived. Fruit, above medium in size; 
roundish and somewhat conic; bright red, deepening to 
purplish black in the best colored specimens. Flesh, 
white, often streaked or tinged with red; quality, good. 

Mcintosh: Similar to the Fameuse, but adapted to a 
wider range of localities. Tree, in some localities a 



FRUIT CULTURE 95 

slow grower and not very productive; in other places, 
a strong grower, hardy, and productive; bears fairly 
early; yields good crops. Fruit, medium to large; 
roundish to somewhat oblate; red with a slight amount 
of whitish yellow or green; quality, very good to best; 
prized for dessert, but lacks sufficient firmness to stand 
long shipment. Flesh, white or slightly yellowish; often 
tinged with red; firm; fine; crisp; tender; juicy; 
aromatic. 

Hnbbardston: An early winter variety. Tree, vigor- 
ous and generally of good size. Fruit, medium to 
large; roundish ovate; red mingled with yellow or 
green. Flesh, whitish; slightly tinged with yellow; 
quality, very good to best. 

Tompkins King: One of the highest quality apples 
produced. Tree, rather vigorous; lateral branches, slen- 
der and somewhat drooping. Fruit, large to very large; 
roundish; sometimes inclined to conic; red with a 
small amount of yellow. Flesh, rich yellow; tender; 
aromatic; juicy; quality very good to best. In ordinary 
storage the King keeps until Dec. or Jan., and in cold 
storage until about Feb. King apples are probably at 
their best about Christmas. 

Yellow Belleilower: Tree, large; vigorous; good grower; 
fairly hardy; not a satisfactory bearer. Fruit, round- 
ish oblong, narrowing toward the base; pale lemon yel- 
low, often with brownish yellow cheek; quality good; ex- 
cellent for dessert and for cooking. Flesh, white, 
showing slightly yellowish. The season same as King. 

Winter Banana: Tree, medium; vigorous; a fair grower; 
bears young; yields moderate crops; in most cases is 
an annual bearer. Fruit, large; roundish conic; bright 
pale yellow with a dark pinkish blush; quality, good 
to very good. Flesh, whitish tinged with yellow; 
moderately firm; tender; juicy. The apples are better 
for dessert than for cooking, being too mild in flavor 
for the latter purpose. They will keep in cold storage 
until about March. 



96 FRUIT CULTURE 

Smokehouse: Tree, vigorous; healthy; hardy; bears 
rather young; a good yielder, usually producing crops 
annually; has a tendency to form a dense head. Fruit, 
medium large to large; oblate; yellow; deeply mottled 
red; flesh, slightly tinged with yellow; rather firm; 
crisp; juicy. Quality is good. Season is from Oct. to 
Feb. in storage. 

Black Gilliflower: Tree, medium in size; a vigorous 
grower; generally a reliable bearer. Fruit, medium in 
size; long ovate to oblong conic; dark red to dull 
purple. Flesh, whitish or yellowish; becomes mellow 
and mealy on standing. The season is from Oct. to 
Jan. or Feb. 

Rambo: Tree, of medium size; moderately vigorous. 
Fruit, medium in size; roundish or somewhat oblate in 
form; greenish yellow, mottled with red; quality, good 
to very good. Flesh, white, tinged with yellow or 
green; juicy; rather fine grained. In ordinary storage 
the apples keep until Nov.; in cold storage until Feb. 

Tolman Sweet: Tree, moderately vigorous; a good 
grower; long lived; very hardy. Fruit, medium; oblate; 
pale yellow, sometimes slightly blushed; sweet; quality 
fair to very good. Flesh, white; firm; rather tough. In 
ordinary storage the apples will keep until about Jan. 1 
and in cold storage to about March or April. 

York Imperial: Tree, vigorous; a thrifty grower; a 
good bearer, bearing biennially, or in some cases an- 
nually. Fruit, medium to large, roundish oblate, and 
distinctly lopsided; pinkish red over green or yellow. 
Flesh, yellowish; firm; fairly juicy; quality, generally 
good. In cellar storage it will keep from Jan, to 
April; in cold storage it seems to scald badly, and may 
last only through Feb. 

Smith Cider: Tree, moderately vigorous; has long, 
stout, straggling branches. Fruit, medium; round; 
striped pinkish red. Flesh, whitish; juicy; of good 
flavor. Desirable for cooking purposes; will keep in cel- 
lar storage until Feb. ; in cold storage until March. 



FRUIT CULTURE 97 

Baldwin: The most important commercial winter apple 
grown in America, a standard fruit in both American, 
and export markets, and one of the principal varieties 
handled in cold storage. Tree, strong grower; long 
lived; vigorous; slow to come into bearing, but bears 
very abundantly, generally biennially. Fruit, medium in 
size; roundish to conic; red over light yellow or green. 
Flesh, yellowish; moderately coarse; quality good to 
very good. Fruit is suitable both for dessert and cooking 
purposes. Its season in ordinary storage is from Nov. to 
March, in cold storage until May or June. 

Esopiis Spitccnherg: Better known, perhaps, as Spit- 
zenberg. Is of the Baldwin type, but of better quality 
and more highly prized as a fancy dessert fruit. It is 
also a good quality cooking apple. Tree, rather slow 
grower and generally rated as a moderate cropper. 
Fruit, medium to large; oblong; bright red over yellow. 
Flesh, yellowish; crisp; tender; quality very good to 
best. Its season extends from Nov. to Feb. or March 
in ordinary storage and to May or June in cold storage. 

Delicious: Tree, a strong grower and a heavy bloomer. 
Fruit, large to very large; oblong conic, with 5 points 
projecting from the basin; red splashed and striped over 
pale yellow. Flesh, pale yellow; tender; moderately 
juicy. The quality is of the best, especially for dessert. 

Rhode Island Greening: As a type of green apple, the 
Rhode Island Greening is the best known in America. 
Tree, large and spreading; a reliable cropper; yields 
fruit annually. Fruit medium to large; grass green in 
autumn, to yellowish green when fully matured; roundish 
oblate; a good shipper. Flesh, yellowish; firm; fine 
grained; juicy; quality very good. It is highly prized 
for cooking and by many is thought to be an excellent 
dessert fruit. Its season is about the same as that of 
Baldwin. 

Yellow Newtown: Also known as the Albemarle Pip- 
pin. Tree, vigorous and erect. Fruit, yellow, often with 
a pink blush spread over a part of the surface. Flesh, 

7 



98 FRUIT CULTURE 

yellowish with a mild and highly aromatic flavor. Its 
season extends from Jan. until April and sometimes until 
May. 

Northern Spy: Tree, large and vigorous; upright; 
a slow grower and late coming into bearing, but when 
mature a good yielder. Fruit, large to very large; 
roundish conic; pale yellow nearly concealed by pinkish 
red and splashed with carmine. The flavor is very good 
and the fruit is well liked for dessert and for cooking. 
In ordinary storage the apples cannot be kept much 
later than Feb. or March, and even in cold storage they 
are likely to deteriorate if left longer than March. 

Jonathan: Tree, medium; fairly reliable cropper; 
bears rather early. Fruit, small to medium; roundish 
conic; bright red over yellow, which is sometimes 
visible where a twig or leaf has shaded the fruit. 
Flesh, white often marked with red; juicy; spicy; 
quality, very good to best. Its season is from Oct. to 
some time in Jan. in ordinary storage, and to Feb. or 
March in cold storage. 

Ben Davis: Tree, medium; rather a rank grower when 
young; has coarse, strong wood that will stand under 
heavy crops. The form of tree tends to be upright and 
roundish, becoming rather spreading in old trees. Fruit, 
medium to large; conic; deep red or red striped. Flesh, 
whitish slightly tinged with yellow; firm; moderately 
coarse; slightly tough. The quality is fair to poor. Its 
season extends as late as June or July if the fruit is 
kept in cold storage. 

Gano: Similar to the Ben Davis, although better in 
quality. Tree, generally vigorous and of the same up- 
right spreading habit as the Ben Davis. Fruit, me- 
dium; roundish conic; light yellow, overlaid almost com- 
pletely with red. Flesh, whitish, slightly tinged with 
yellow; firm, but coarse in texture. Its season is about 
the same as that of Ben Davis. 

Black Ben Davis: Is of the Ben Davis type, but re- 
sembles the Gano more nearly than the Ben Davis. 



FRUIT CULTURE 99 

Tree, upright when young but spreading and dense 
when mature. Fruit, medium to large; roundish conic; a 
clear pale yellow covered with a brilliant red that be- 
comes a dark purple on the side exposed to the sun. It 
lasts until April and May when kept in cold storage. 

Winesap: Tree, of medium size; rather vigorous; bears 
early; usually an annual cropper. Fruit, small to 
medium; roundish; slightly conical; deep red. Flesh, 
yellowish, with an occasional red streak running 
through it; juicy; crisp; quality, good to very good. 
The ordinary limit in cold storage is April. 

Staymen Winesap: Tree, fairly vigorous; spreading; 
rather open. Fruit, medium to very large; roundish conic 
to globular; a dull red that is rather indistinctly striped 
with carmine. Flesh, yellowish or greenish; crisp; 
juicy; quality good to very good. The fruit will keep 
in storage until April or May. 

Wagener: Tree, small; vigorous when young, but short 
lived. Fruit, medium to large; roundish oblate; bright, 
light-red stripes over pale yellow. Flesh, whitish, 
slightly tinged with yellow; juicy; tender. Quality, 
very good to best, being similar to the Northern Spy 
in this respect. Its season extends from Oct. to Feb. 

Grimes: A variety adapted to middle latitudes and one 
of the best quality apples produced. Tree, moderately 
vigorous; branches, short, curved, and crooked; good 
cropper. Fruit, medium to large; roundish oblong. 
Flesh, yellow; firm; tender. Can be kept until Jan. or 
Feb. in cold storage. 

Rome, or Rome Beauty: Does well in the latitude of 
New Jersey and Southern Ohio. Tree, not particularly 
vigorous, but attains medium size and bears early. 
Fruit, medium to very large; roundish; red mixed with 
yellow. Skin, thick; tough; smooth. Flesh, nearly 
white, with a slight tinge of yellow or green; juicy; 
crisp; of an agreeable taste; good quality. The fruit is 
used both for dessert and for cooking purposes. The 
season extends to about April or May. 



100 FRUIT CULTURE 

Stark: Tree, vigorous; large; a reliable cropper, and 
very productive. Fruit, medium to large; red mixed 
with dull green or yellow. Flesh, yellowish and firm; 
quality, fair to good. The apples can often be kept in 
storage until May. A variety widely grown in the central 
part of the United States. 

PRUNING OF APPLES 

When the young apple tree from the nursery is planted 
it should be cut back and the head started about 2^ to 
3 ft. from the ground. If the branches are properly 
placed, the three or four best ones should be cut back 
to stubs 10 to 15 in. in length; these branches should 
be strong and be spaced about 6 in. apart on the trunk. 
If the branches on the tree are not properly placed so 
that a good head can be started, cut off all the branches, 
leaving the trunk merely a whip, and form the head 
from the new shoots that are sent out. 

There is much difference of opinion in regard to the 
subsequent pruning of the apple tree. Some authorities 
give detailed instructions as to just how and when an 
apple tree should be pruned, and the approximate dis- 
tances the tree should be cut back at different ages. 
Taking the average experience of a large number of 
growers, however, it seems that the best results have 
not been obtained by heavy pruning, but rather by 
moderate pruning, and that the least cutting possible 
should be done, consistent with -training the tree into 
such form that each individual fruit will receive as 
much light as possible, and with keeping the tree in 
such form that spraying and harvesting can be done 
to the best advantage. The most economical way of 
pruning is to pinch out, and train the growth of the 
branches during the summer so that only the limbs 
that are desirable are permitted to grow. This will 
save cutting out a large quantity of wood later on, and 
the branches permitted to grow in this way usually grow 
larger than those pruned during the dormant season. 



FRUIT CULTURE 101 

From year to year after the tree has once been properly 
started, it should be developed according to some 
definite system. Each of the original three or four 
main branches should be headed back some the second 
spring and two branches allowed to develop on each of 
them, the branches coming off at different points and 
growing in such directions that the top of the tree 
will be balanced and open. That year, during the 
summer, the growth on these laterals should be limited to 
two or three branches, chosen with the same end in view, 
as in the case of the first laterals. This system of se- 
lecting branches should be continued for 3 or 4 yrs. until 
the main framework of the tree has been built up. 

After the framework of the tree has been built up, 
the quantity of wood cut from the tree should be 
gradually reduced, until only the removal of misplaced 
and diseased branches will be needed. When the trees 
approach bearing age care should be taken to leave the 
fruit spurs on the tree and to keep the bearing wood 
low and well distributed in all parts of the tree so that 
the load of fruit may be well carried and easy of access. 

Future injury to the tree is prevented if the pruning 
is well and neatly done. No stubs should be left, the 
cuts being made flush with the limb from which a 
branch is pruned. All large cuts that will not heal over 
in a short time should be painted with a good white lead 
and linseed-oil paint. This painting of the wounds is very 
important and should never be neglected. 

SPRAYING OF APPLES 

The principal insects attacking the apple are the bud 
moth, canker worm, coddling moth, apple maggot, cigar- 
case bearers, San Jose scale, oyster-shell scale, scurfy 
scale, leaf-blister mite, round-headed borer, and apple- 
tent caterpillar. The principal diseases of the apple are 
scab, fire blight, black rot, sometimes called New York 
apple-tree canker, and bitter rot. 



102 FRUIT CULTURE 

In order to control the insects and diseases of the 
apple that can be controlled by spraying the following 
system of spraying will be found effective: 

1. During the season when the trees are dormant and 
just as the leaf buds are swelling but before they are 
open, spray with lime-sulphur solution (sp. gr. 1.03 — that 
is, concentrated lime-sulphur of 33° Baume diluted 
1 to 8 with water) to which has been added 2 lb. of 
arsenate of lead to each 50 gal. of solution. This 
spraying is for the control of the San Jose scale, leaf- 
blister mite, bud moth, and cigar-case bearer. It is gen- 
erally known as the dormant spray. 

2. After the leaf buds are open, but just before the 
fruit blossoms open, or about the time when the fruit 
blossoms are beginning to look pink at the tips, spray 
with a dilute lime-sulphur solution (sp. gr. 1,007, that 
is, concentrated lime-sulphur of Z2)° Baume diluted 
1 to 40 with water). Bordeaux mixture (8 lb. copper 
sulphate, 4 lb. lime, water-slaked, 50 gal. water), may 
be used instead of the dilute lime-sulphur, but it is 
likely to cause some damage to the foliage or fruit or 
to both. Whichever of these solutions is used, arsenate 
of lead should be added (2 to 3 lb. arsenate of lead to 
50 gal. of the other spray solution). This combined 
fungicide-insecticide spray is for the control of the 
apple scab, bud moth, cigar-case bearer, and canker 
worm. 

3. After the petals have begun to fall from the apple 
blossoms, starting when about two-thirds of them have 
fallen, spray with the solution given in paragraph 
2, preferably with the lime-sulphur-arsenate-of-lead solu- 
tion. This spraying is for the control of the apple 
scab, leaf spot, coddling moth, canker worm, and bud 
moth, and is the most important of all the applications. 

4. From 10 to 14 da. later another application of the 
solution given in paragraph 2 should be made for the 
control of apple scab, leaf spot, coddling moth, and 
canker worm. 



FRUIT CULTURE 103 

5. From 8 to 9 wk. after the blossoms fall the spray- 
ing described in paragraph 2 should again be repeated 
for any late infections of the apple scab that may occur, 
and also for any of the later brood of the coddling moth. 
Though in most seasons this application will not be 
found necessary, the work is not so expensive but that 
it generally pays to apply it. 

6. In case the green aphis attacks the foliage, spray 
thoroughly, before the leaves begin to curl, with a 
whale-oil soap solution (1 lb. whale-oil soap to 6 gal. of 
water), or with a tobacco preparation guaranteed to con- 
tain 2.7 per cent, of nicotine diluted with 65 to 100 
parts of water, or with kerosene emulsion diluted in the 
proportion of 1 part of emulsion to 6 parts of water. 

The importance of applying all of these sprays thor- 
oughly and at the right time cannot be too greatly 
emphasized. 



PEACHES 

VARIETIES OF PEACHES 
Early Varieties.— The following are the principal early 
varieties of peaches that are used in commercial plant- 
ings: 

Greensboro: Very early. Fruit, white fleshed; medium 
to large; oblong to oval, often somewhat flattened; 
clingstone; fair flavor, rather soft for distance ship- 
ment. Tree, hardy and productive. Best market peach 
of its season and profitable where an early peach is in 
demand. Inferior to Carman in flavor and shipping 
quality, but ripens 2 wk. earlier. 

IVaddell : Early. Fruit, white fleshed; medium size; 
oblong conic; semi-clingstone; flavor better than 
Greensboro; better for shipment than Greensboro. Tree, 
hardy and productive. Fruit needs to be thinned 
severely to reach good size; ripens only a few days in 
advance of Carman. Can be used to start the Carman 
season, especially in local markets. 



104 FRUIT CULTURE 

Carman: Ripens a few days after Waddell. Fruit, 
white fleshed; large; round to oval; semi-clingstone; 
flavor, medium to good; shipping quality, fair to good. 
Tree, hardy and productive. Regarded as the first im- 
portant early shipping variety. More hardy and pro- 
ductive than Elberta in most sections, but not high enough 
in flavor for a good canning peach. 

St. John: Earliest yellow-fleshed market variety. 
Fruit, yellow-fleshed; medium size; round, blunt at apex; 
freestone; flavor, high; rather soft for distance shipment. 
Tree, fairly hardy and productive in some localities. 

Mountain Rose: Medium early; ripens about 7 to 9 
da. after Carman. Fruit, white fleshed; medium size; 
nearly round, blunt at apex; freestone; high prominent 
flavor; shipping quality, fair. Tree, fairly hardy and 
in favorable seasons, productive; less hardy than Greens- 
boro, Carman, and Hiley. 

Hilcy, or Early Belle: Medium early fruit, white 
fleshed; large; oblong conic, apex pointed; freestone; 
high quality and flavor. This variety has taken the 
place of Mountain Rose in some localities, as it is hardier, 
of better shipping quality, and ripens at the same 
season. 

Brigg's Red May: Early-ripening variety in California. 
Fruit, medium to large; skin white, with rich red cheek; 
round; semi-clingstone. Standard early variety. 

Alexander : Widely grown early variety in California. 
Fruit, greenish white, nearly covered with deep red; 
medium to large; semi-clingstone; flesh, firm, juicy, and 
sweet; bears transportation well. 

Mid-Season Varieties.— The following are the prin- 
cipal mid-season varieties of peaches used in commercial 
plantings: 

Champion: Ripens about 5 to 8 da. after Mountain 
Rose or Hiley. Fruit, white fleshed; large; round, blunt 
at apex; freestone; flavor regarded as the highest; 
rather tender for distance shipment, otherwise a good 
market variety. Tree, hardy and productive. 



FRUIT CULTURE 105 

Belle of Georgia: Ripens a few days before Elberta, 
and a few days after Champion begins. Fruit, white 
fleshed; large; oblong conic, apex pointed; freestone; 
high flavor; especially desirable for distance shipments; 
very firm. Tree, hardy and productive. Good variety 
both for market and for the home garden. 

Reeve's Favorite: Ripens about the same time as Belle 
of Georgia. Fruit, yellow fleshed; very large; round, 
with blunt apex; freestone; high flavor; good shipping 
quality. Tree, less hardy than Early Crawford; lacks 
productiveness as generally grown. 

Foster: Widely grown in California where it ripens 
just before or about the time of Early Crawford. Fruit, 
yellow fleshed; uniformly large; slightly flattened, with 
slight suture; freestone; flavor, good, rich, and juicy. 
Tree, hardy and productive. 

Oldmixon: Ripens about with Early Crawford. Fruit, 
white fleshed; large; roundish, or slightly oval in shape; 
flavor, excellent; flesh, juicy. 

Early Crawford: Ripens about 7 to 9 da. before 
Elberta. Fruit, yellow fleshed; medium sized; requires 
severe thinning to be of best size; round oval, blunt at 
apex; freestone; high quality; rather tender for ship- 
ping. Tree, rather tender in bud; fairly productive. 

Elberta: Ripens a few days later than Belle of 
Georgia. Fruit, yellow fleshed; very large; oblong oval, 
often somewhat flattened; freestone; medium to good 
quality according to locality; firm; excellent for shipping. 
Tree, hardy and productive. Most popular market peach 
grown. 

Edc : Ripens about with Elberta. Fruit, yellow 
fleshed; large; round oval conic; freestone; higher in 
flavor than Elberta; shipping quality good. Tree, hardy 
and productive. 

Frances: Ripens a few days after Elberta. Fruit, 
yellow fleshed; large; round to oval; freestone; high 
flavor; good shipping quality. Tree, hardy and pro- 
ductive. 



106 FRUIT CULTURE 

Late Varieties.— The following are the main late vari- 
eties of peaches used in commercial plantings: 

Fox Seedling: Ripens about 10 to 14 da. after Elberta. 
Fruit, white fleshed; large; oval to conic; freestone; 
flavor good; shipping quality, good. Tree, medium hardy 
and productive. Best commercial variety of its season. 

Muir: California variety. Ripens a few days before 
Late Crawford. Fruit, large to very large; freestone; 
flesh, yellow; flavor, excellent; fruit good both for 
shipment and canning, and also particularly adapted 
for drying. Tree, good bearer and strong grower. 

Newhall: Grown largely in California. Ripens with 
or sometimes a few days before Late Crawford. Fruit, 
yellow fleshed; very large; freestone; flavor rich, some- 
what vinous. Tree, hardy, healthy, and vigorous. 

Late Crawford: Ripens from 10 to 14 da. later than 
Elberta. Fruit, yellow fleshed; large, round to oval, 
blunt at apex; freestone; flavor, good, but rather acid; 
shipping quality, fair to good. Tree, rather tender in 
bud, and, therefore, variable in productivity. 

Smock: Ripens from 10 to 14 da. later than Elberta. 
Fruit, yellow fleshed; medium to large; oblong to oval; 
freestone; flavor, fair; flesh, rather dry; shipping quality 
good. Tree, hardy and productive. Old variety, grown 
commercially in some districts. 

Edgemont Beauty: Ripens about 10 to 14 da. later 
than Elberta. Fruit, yellow fleshed; large; round to 
oval, pointed at apex; freestone; shipping quality good. 
Tree of the Crawford type, but appears to be slightly 
more hardy and productive. 

Iron Mountain: Ripens 5 to 6 da. later than Edge- 
mont or Late Crawford. Fruit, white fleshed; skin, 
greenish white; large; oblong to oval; freestone; high 
quality; firm. Tree, vigorous, hardy, and productive. 

Krummel October: Ripens 7 to 10 da. after Late 
Crawford. Fruit, yellow fleshed; large; freestone; 
round, blunt at apex; quality, high; good shipper. 
Tree, medium hardy and productive. 



FRUIT CULTURE 107 

Salway: Ripens 2 wk. after Late Crawford. Fruit, 
yellow fleshed; medium to large; round to oval; 
freestone; flavor good where season permits of thorough 
ripening; shipping quality good. Tree, requires long 
season and good soil to be medium hardy and pro- 
ductive. 

Yellozv Tuscany: Late variety, grown extensively in 
southern California. Ripens about 2 wk. later than 
Late Crawford; fruit, yellow fleshed; large; clingstone; 
especially desirable for canning. Tree, productive and 
a strong grower. 

Bilyeii: Ripens about a month later than Late Craw- 
ford. Fruit, white fleshed; medium to large; round to 
oval; freestone; quality fair; very firm. Tree, hardy 
and productive where season is long and soil rich. 

Stalcy: Late variety grown extensively in California; 
ripens about 3 wk. after Salway. Fruit, white fleshed; 
very large; somewhat elongated and flattened laterally; 
freestone; flavor, delicious; flesh, very juicy and tender. 

PRUNING OF PEACHES 

Before a young peach tree from the nursery is planted, 
the top should be cut back to about 2 ft. above the bud. 
If the side branches that are left are large they should 
be pruned back to stubs 2 to 3 in. long; if they are 
slender, the tree Sliould be cut back to a cane. All 
injured roots should be cut back smoothly, and all of 
the roots should be cut back to not exceed 6 in. in 
length. 

The pruning the second spring should be with the 
object of retaining the strongest two, three, or four 
main branches that will tend to form the strongest and 
best balanced tree; all other branches should be pruned 
off close to the trunk. 

The pruning the third spring consists in thinning out 
the secondary branches that, when the tree becomes 
larger, would exclude the light. Where two branches 
take up much the same space, the weaker or more 



108 FRUIT CULTURE 

irregular branch should be removed. The branches left 
should be cut back from a third to a half of the previous 
season's growth, and if a tree possesses some branches 
that have made an excessive or irregular growth, these 
branches should be cut back even more severely in 
order to maintain a well-balanced top. 

Beginning with the fourth spring, when the form of 
the tree has become well established, and continuing 
throughout the life of the tree, the pruning consists in 
cutting back the annual growth about a third to a 
half on the leading branches, and in keeping 
the top well thinned. The cutting back of the tips of 
the branches will tend to cause a thickening of the 
top, thus making the thinning of the top a necessity. 
In cutting back any leading branch, the cut should 
be made just above or beyond a side branch, or if no 
such side branch exists, the cutting should be made 
to a bud on the outside of the branch. Any broken 
branches should be cut off smoothly where they join 
another branch. 

The annual cutting back of bearing peach trees re- 
duces the bearing surface and may considerably reduce 
the crop, because the peach bears its fruit principally 
on the previous season's wood or twig growth, although 
some of the fruit is produced on spurs and short twigs 
that develop on portions of branches that are 2 and in 
some cases even 3 yr. old. Most commercial varieties 
of peaches, however, set such an abundance of fruit buds 
that some annual cutting back is necessary to keep them 
from overbearing and to retain the vigor of the tree. 

Unpruned peach trees frequently produce a somewhat 
larger crop the first season than trees that have been 
regularly pruned, but after the first or second crop the 
pruned trees generally produce the larger crop, as they 
are likely to be more vigorous and to have a greater 
annual growth. Peach trees that are regularly pruned 
are much longer lived than unpruned trees, and the 
buds are less likely to be injured in winter. 



FRilT CILTCRE 109 

SPRAYING OF PEACHES 

The principal insects attacking the peach are the 
peach borer, plum curculio, and San Jose scale. The 
principal diseases of the peach are brown rot, black 
spot, or scab, leaf curl, and yellows. Spraying is not 
effective for yellows, the only known means of control 
being to take out and burn diseased trees as soon as 
they are discovered. 

The following method of spraying should be followed 
for peaches: 

1. Spray, before the buds open, with lime-sulphur 
mixture (at sp. gr. 1.03 to sp. gi". 1.035 — that is, 
concentrated lime-sulphur of 3i° to 34° Baunie diluted 
1 to 8 or 1 to 9 with water) for the control of scale and 
peach-leaf curl. 

2. Spray just after petals fall from blooms with a 
mixture of 2 to 3 lb. arsenate-of-lead paste to 50 gal. of 
water to control the curculio. 

3. Spray when calyx is being shed from the fruit with 
self-boiled lime-sulphur (about 8 lb. sulphur, 8 lb. lime, 
50 gal. water) to which has been added 2 to 3 lb. arsenate 
of lead for each 50 gal. of solution, for the control of 
curculio, scab, and brown rot. 

4. Spray with self-boiled lime-sulphur (same formula 
as given in paragraph 3) about 3 wk. after the third 
spraying for the control of scab and brown rot. 

5. For mid-season and late varieties, such as Cham- 
pion, Elberta, Fox Seedling, Salway, and Bilyeau, 
spray with self-boiled lime-sulphur (same formula as 
given in paragraph 3) about 2 wk. after the fourth 
spraying, for the control of scab and brown rot. 



110 FRUIT CULTURE 

PEARS 

VARIETIES OF PEARS 

Of the many thousand varieties of pears the following 
are the most important commercially; they are named 
approximately in the order in which they mature, the 
summer, fall, winter, varieties being given in the order 
named: 

Bloodgood: Of considerable importance throughout 
California. Tree, generally hardy, close grower, having 
deep reddish-brown wood; short jointed; comes into 
bearing early and bears an abundance of fruit. Fruit, 
yellowish-white flesh; though fairly good in flavor is not 
very attractive in appearance. 

Clapp's Favorite: Tree, very strong grower; young 
wood, reddish, dark brown; tree tends to rather upright 
growth, but when fruiting will spread considerably; 
bears its fruit evenly and is very productive. Flesh 
very fine and very juicy, being sweet and vinous in 
flavor. 

Bartlctt : European variety and known in Europe as 
the Williams Bonchretien. It is the king of pears com- 
mercially, has a very good market, and is one of the 
most profitable varieties. Tree comes into bearing early; 
generally healthy and vigorous, making a strong growth 
but varying somewhat in fruitfulness. Fruit, large, 
varying somewhat in form; when ripe is of a yellowish 
color, often with an attractive blush on one side; flesh, 
white and juicy; has a musky and perfumed flavor. 

Beurrc Hardy: In different localities may be a sum- 
mer pear, an early autumn pear, and in some localities 
it becomes a late autumn pear. Tree, a strong, erect 
grower, with an abundance of foliage. Fruit, somewhat 
sub-acid but of rich, delicious flavor, and is well re- 
ceived in some markets. 

Flemish Beauty: Popular variety, being known by more 
than twenty names. Tree, vigorous and hardy; tends 



FRUIT CULTURE 111 

to come into bearing early; heavy bearer. Fruit, gen- 
erally large, yellow, often marbled and covered with 
patches of light russet; flesh, white, juicy, sweet, and 
often slightly musky in flavor. On the Pacific coast 
it must be picked early and ripened in the house to be 
of the best quality. 

Scckel: Very small pear, but what it lacks in size 
is made up in quality. Fruit, very sweet and juicy, 
making a delightful pear for eating, pickling, or 
spicing. Because of small size, does not meet with 
much demand in many markets, but those markets that 
do know it appreciate it highly and will pay good 
prices when it is well grown. Tree, generally small, 
with a rather rounded head; likely to be a rather slow 
grower, but is fairly hardy and generally healthy. 

Howell: Increasing in popularity on the Pacific coast, 
due largely to its handsome appearance and tendency to 
be an annual bearer. Fruit, light yellow, often with a 
red cheek; flesh, white and melting, generally juicy. 
Tree, generally vigorous grower of upright habit; comes 
into bearing early and bears annually. 

Sheldon: Very popular pear in parts of the East; often 
troubled with core rot, due no doubt to its hanging on 
the tree too long. Tree, upright grower, vigorous, and 
early, generally producing a round-headed tree and 
tending to be a good bearer. Fruit, of medium size and 
roundish; greenish yellow; often has a light russet 
color, and at times becomes a bright red where exposed 
to the sun; sweet, aromatic, juicy. 

Duchesse d" AngouUme: Grown extensively along At- 
lantic seaboard. When well grown it is an attractive 
pear of good quality, but must be well grown to be 
profitable. Fruit, varies in size, from large to very 
large; greenish yellow, with more or less streaks and 
spots of russet; flesh, white, juicy, and fine in flavor. 
Tree, generally vigorous and does very well grafted on 
the quince; is often used in double working for other 
varieties. 



112 FRUIT CULTURE 

Beurre Bosc : Unfortunately, not as well known in 
America as it should be. When well grown, is one of 
the most delicious varieties to be found anywhere; its 
unattractive appearance has been against it, but as 
people come to know it better, the demand is constantly 
increasing. Fruit, large size and generally tapering; 
color varying from dark yellow to green, often covered 
with a cinnamon russet; there may also be streaks or 
dots of red on the fruit; in some regions fruit becomes 
almost entirely russet; flavor very delicious; has a 
melting buttery, very rich flesh. Holds in storage well. 

Beurre Clairgeau: Fruit, very large and of pyriform 
shape; apt to vary in size; color, very yellow; often 
contains some cinnamon streaks covered with russet 
dots; varies extremely in quality; because of its at- 
tractiveness, often brings high prices and at times one 
of the most profitable varieties. Tree, an erect grower, 
and very vigorous, has handsome foliage, is a heavy 
bearer, and comes into bearing early. 

Beurre d'Anjou: Becoming one of most popular pears 
on Pacific coast, also popular in many of the Eastern 
States. Fruit, very good quality and in good modern 
storage house can be held until Jan. or even Feb. ; gen- 
erally large and has a pyriform shape; stem short; 
color, generally greenish yellow — may have trace of 
russet and at times a shade of crimson on the sunny 
side; flesh, fine grained, very juicy; flavor rich, gen- 
erally perfumed. Tree, in some parts of the country 
is a fair grower, and in other regions a rank grower. 

Doyenne dti Cornice: French variety and has prac- 
tically brought top prices for American pears, having 
sold as high as $10 per box in the Rogue River Valley; 
one of the favorite English Christmas pears and holds 
up very well in cold storage. Tree, fairly vigorous, up- 
right grower, although with age becoming rather broad 
and spreading; unfortunately, comes into bearing late 
and is not very productive. Fruit, generally large, of 
pyriform type; color, greenish yellow and often russeted; 



FRUIT CULTURE 115 

on the sunny side becomes shaded with crimson; quality, 
highest; flesh, white, melting, and has an abundance of 
sweet, rich juice. 

Glont Morceau: An old pear, formerly grown quite ex- 
tensively in the East, but on account of susceptibility 
to scab and blight is not grown as much as formerly, 
should, however, receive more attention. Tree, has a 
dark wood; generally of a spreading habit, usually 
hardy, and although it does not come into bearing early, 
when matured produces good crops and tends to bear 
regularly. Good variety to use as a dwarf. Fruit, highly 
prized by English trade, being on a par with Comice; 
varies somewhat in form; generally large; of a short 
pyriform type, at times approaching an oval; color, 
pale greenish yellow; flesh is very fine grained, white, 
melting, sugary, and extremely delicious. 

Kieffcr: Hybrid, supposed to be a cross between 
Chinese sand pear and Bartlett or some similar variety; 
has become the most popular variety in the South and 
parts of the Middle West; increasing in popularity, 
especially as a cooking pear; has been one of the most 
resistant to the blight. Fruit, ships and keeps well; 
probably stands rougher handling than most European 
and American varieties; quality, poor for eating but 
good for cooking; grows from a medium to a large size, 
generally oval pyriform shape; often sprinkled with 
small dots and has a tinge of red on the sunny side; 
flesh, coarse and juicy. 

Le Conte: Le Conte is a variety that is grown rather 
extensively, especially in the South. It is supposed to 
be a hybrid between the Chinese pear and some other 
cultivated variety. Tree, generally vigorous, prolific, 
and hardy. Fruit, like the Kieff'er in quality, is poor 
and is not grown in regions where the Bosc, Comice, 
etc., succeed; skin is generally yellow; large, pyriform. 

Eastern Beurre : Grown quite extensively on the Pa- 
cific coast, especially in California; very late winter 
variety, often keeping until April. Fruit, color is 



114 FRUIT CULTURE 

generally yellow, may contain some russet, often has a 
brown cheek, and occasionally has patches of russet; 
when well grown, flesh is fine, white, sweet, and juicy. 
Tree, makes a moderate growth, has a round head and 
under favorite conditions is a good bearer; must be 
grown on good, rich soil. 

Columbia: Being grown to some extent in California 
and is valued in parts of the South. Tree, good bearer 
and handsome grower. Fruit, yellow and when fully 
matured often is deep orange. 

Lawrence: One of hardy winter varieties valued in 
the East. Tree, generally a good bearer and a fair 
grower. Fruit, in markets where it is known brings a 
good price; color, light yellow with some russet; flavor, 
generally melting, sweet, and aromatic; juicy; medium 
in size. 

Winter Nells: King of the winter pears. When well 
grown, reaches superb quality. Tree, however, often 
comes into bearing late and the fruit often tends to 
become rather small. Must be planted on deep, rich 
soil and thinned well if it is to succeed. Fruit, generally 
yellow in color, but may have patches of russet; when 
well grown, flesh is very fine grained and buttery, 
sweet, juicy, and of very good quality; generally a yellow 
white. Can be kept well by proper handling. 

Patrick Barry: Receives more diversity of comment 
than almost any other variety, being condemned by 
some and praised by others. It is one of the few 
pears that can be shipped through the tropics. On the 
Pacific coast it is displacing the Winter Nelis in certain 
regions. Fruit, an elongated pyriform, fairly large; color, 
will vary from almost a complete russet to a rich 
golden russet or a deep yellow. Flesh, generally white, 
juicy, and melting; may vary extremely from very 
poor to fair. Tree, comes into bearing early and tends 
to bear regularly. 



FRUIT CULTURE 115 

PRUNING OF PEARS 

The same general principles of pruning that were 
given in the discussion of the apple apply equally well 
to the pear. The first .3 yr. the pruning should be 
practically the same as for the apple, the laterals being 
chosen and the framework being built up in the same 
way. 

After a pear tree comes into bearing, however, close 
attention must be given to pruning, and pruning in 
such a way as to produce a growth of soft, sappy 
twigs or branches should be avoided, as such a growth 
is easily injured by fire blight. The pruning should 
be done regularly, and long, rangy branches that in 
time will have to be headed in severely should not 
be allowed to develop, for such heading in stimulates 
a rank growth of soft wood. 

Summer pruning, when properly and not too severely 
done, is very effective on the pear, because it does not 
tend to stimulate a growth of soft wood and tends to 
throw the tree into heavy bearing. Terminal growth 
of branches checked in the summer will avoid the 
necessity later of heading in long, rambling branches, 
and will also force the formation of twigs further down, 
on the branch that in turn will bear fruit buds and 
thus better distribute the crop over the tree. As many 
pears have a tendency to produce a large percentage 
of their buds near the tips of the branches, summer 
pruning on such varieties is particularly desirable. 

SPRAYING OF PEARS 

The most serious insect pests of the pear are the pear 
psylla, leaf-blister mite, San Jose scale, coddling moth, 
and pear slug. The most destructive diseases attacking 
the pear are fire blight, and pear scab. 

For the control of the insects and diseases of the pear 
that can be controlled by spraying the following system 
of spraying will be found effective: 



116 FRUIT CULTURE 

1. The first spraying of the pear should be the same 
as for the apple, the spray solution being the same 
and applied before the buds swell. This spraying is 
for the control of the San Jose scale and leaf-blister 
mite. 

2. The second spraying of the pear is "likewise given 
at the same time as the second spraying of the apple 
(before the blossoms open), but the fungicide used may 
be weaker and no arsenate of lead is needed. In this 
spraying a dilute lime-sulphur mixture (at sp. gr. 1.006 
— that is 33° Baume lime-sulphur solution diluted 1 to 50 
with water) should be used; if Bordeaux is preferred, the 
same Bordeaux as used for the second spraying of the 
apple may be used. This spray application is for the 
<;ontrol of the pear scab. 

3. While the petals of the blossoms are still falling 
and the calyx is still open, spray with arsenate of 
lead (2 to 3 lb. arsenate of lead, 50 gal. water) and the 
same lime-sulphur solution given in paragraph 2. This 
spraying is for the control of the coddling moth, pear 
scab, and any other fungus diseases present. 

4. After the blossoms have fallen, spray with dilute 
kerosene-soap emulsion (1 part kerosene-soap emulsion 
stock solution, 6 parts water), or whale-oil soap (1 lb. 
whale-oil soap, 4 or 5 gal. water), or one of the tobacco 
extracts (a preparation guaranteed to contain at least 
2.7 per cent, nicotine diluted with 65 to 100 parts of 
water). This spraying is for the control of the pear 
psylla and should be repeated at intervals of 3 to 7 da. 
until the insects are under control. 

5. From 10 to 14 da. after the spraying described in 
paragraph 3, spray with the same lime-sulphur-arsenate- 
of-lead solution. This is principally for the control of 
the coddling moth and pear scab. 

6. For the entire control of the coddling moth, an 
arsenate-of-lead spray (2 to 3 lb. arsenate of lead, 
50 gal. water) may have to be applied in July, Aug., or 
even as late as Sept. 



FRUIT CULTURE 117 

7. The green aphis is controlled in the same way as 
on the apple. This pest should be sprayed for as soon 
as it appears, before the leaves curl, and is easy to 
control if this rule is followed. The green aphis has a 
number of broods and can rarely be controlled with 
one spraying. 

8. The fire blight of the pear cannot be controlled by 
spraying. Prune out all affected parts as soon as in- 
fection is detected, cutting from 6 to 10 in. below the 
lowest affected part. Disinfect all cut surfaces with 
corrosive-sublimate solution (1 part corrosive sublimate 
to 1,000 parts of water). Coat all large wounds with 
paint or gas tar. 

GRAPES 

VARIETIES OF GRAPES 

Not less than 300 varieties of grapes are offered by 
nurserymen to the grape growers of the United States. 
The following list of varieties of grapes includes those 
of the various classes that are generally considered the 
most important commercially. The varieties are ar- 
ranged under the botanical groups to which they belong, 
a list of varieties being given, and then the par- 
ticularly important ones being described. 

Vinifera Grapes.— Black Ferrara, Black Hamburg, 
Black Morocco, Cornichon, Emperor, Gros Colman, Ma- 
laga, Mission, Muscat, Palomino, Rose of Peru, Sultana, 
Thompson's Seedless, Tokay, Verdal. 

Black Ferrara: In California, considered excellent both 
for local market and for shipping a long distance. 
Bunches and berries, large, and berries cling well to 
stem; berries, black; flavor, superior; skin, thick; and 
pulp, firm. 

Cornichon: Also known as Purple Cornichon and Black 
Cornichon. Vine, very vigorous and bears large, loose, 
bunches of grapes on long peduncles; berries, large and 
long, more or less curved; skin, dark in color, spotted 



118 FRUIT CULTURE 

and thick; berries, borne on long pedicles; quality, not 
of the best, but variety is desirable because of its ex- 
cellent shipping qualities, lateness, and curious shape of 
the grapes. 

Malaga, or White Malaga: Is grown in southern Cali- 
fornia as a table grape and for raisins. Vine, vigorous; 
bunch, very large, loose, shouldered, long, borne on a 
long, flexible stem; berries, very large, oval, yellowish 
green, covered with white bloom; skin, thick; flesh 
firm; of very good quality. 

Mission: Delicious table grape, grown more or less in 
all parts of California having vineyards, but not largely 
shipped out of the state. Vines, very vigorous and pro- 
ductive. Bunches, of medium size, slightly shouldered, 
loose; berries, of medium size, round, dark-purplish 
black, heavy bloom; skin, thin; pulp, juicy; very sweet. 

Muscat, or White Muscat of Alexandria: Leading table 
grape of Pacific coast. Vines, although short and 
straggling, are vigorous and productive, bearing often 
two and sometimes three crops annually; bunch, long, 
loose, shouldered; berry, oblong, light yellow, nearly 
transparent, covered with bloom; skin, thick; pulp, 
firm; very sweet, rich, with a musky flavor. 

Thompson's Seedless: Vines, very vigorous, having an 
especially long trunk and long canes; bunch, large, 
cylindrical, well filled; berries, below medium or small, 
oval; skin, rather thick, of fine golden-yellow color; 
flesh, firm, crisp, juicy; quality, very good; as name 
implies, this variety is seedless and is now the most 
popular seedless grape grown on the Pacific coast, being 
found in vineyards in all parts of Vinifera grape-growing 
regions. 

Tokay, or Flame Tokay: Leading shipping grape of 
Pacific coast. Vines, very vigorous, all parts being 
large; bunches, very large, sometimes weighing 8 or 10 
lb., compact shouldered; berries, very large, oblong, red 
or reddish, covered with heavy bloom; skin, thick; pulp, 
firm; season, late; quality, rather poor. 



FRUIT CULTURE 119 

Labrusca Grapes.— Agawam, Brighton, Campbell Early, 
Catawba, Concord, Diamond, Eaton, Empire State, Gaert- 
ner, Herbert, lona, Jefferson, Salem, Vergennes, Win- 
chell, Worden, Niagara. 

Agawam: Best known of the hybrids between La- 
brusca and Vinifera grapes. Qualities which commend 
it are large size of bunch and berry; beautiful purplish- 
red, oval grapes; rich, sweet, aromatic flavor; attractive 
appearance; excellent keeping qualities, vigor of vine, 
and capacity for self-fertilization. 

Catawba: One of the four standard grapes of eastern 
America. Characters which give it prominence are: 
adaptability to many soils; splendid keeping qualities; 
rich, sweet delicious flavor when fully ripe; vigorous, 
hardy, productive vine; large handsome bunch, with 
attractive dull purple-red berries; skin, thick but not 
disagreeable; flesh, juicy, fine grained, sweet, and rich. 
The chief defects of the variety is that it is susceptible 
to fungi, and its lateness keeps it from being grown in 
very northern regions. 

Concord: Ranks first among the grapes of eastern 
America. Probably 50% of the grapes grown in this 
eastern region are Concords and at least 75% of those put 
on the markets are that variety. Characters of Con- 
cord which have enabled it to take first place in eastern 
America viticulture are: elasticity of constitution 
whereby it adapts itself to many soils and climates; its 
great productiveness; hardiness; ability to withstand 
diseases and insects; certainty of maturity in northern 
regions; and attractiveness from size of bunch and 
berry, both of which are usually uniform, the latter of 
a beautiful blue-black color. 

Diamond: One of leading green grapes of the La- 
brusca group, being surpassed in quality and beauty by 
few other grapes. Vine, early, hardy, productive, vigor- 
ous. Fruit, of splendid quality; rivals Niagara for first 
place among green grapes; ships and keeps fairly well, 
and makes a very good white wine. 



120 FRUIT CULTURE 

Warden: Seedling of Concord and has most of the 
good qualities of its parent; differs chiefly from Con- 
cord in having larger berries and bunches, in being 
better in quality, and in being a week earlier; equally 
as hardy, healthy, vigorous, and productive. Its fault 
that keeps it from being as popular as the Concord 
is that it is more fastidious as to soils and the berries 
crack badly. 

Niagara: Has been leading green grape, but plantings 
of it have so signally failed that it is now ranked 
below several other green grapes. In vigor and pro- 
ductiveness, nearly equals the Concord, but it falls far 
short of this variety, and of a number of green grapes, 
in hardiness. Fruit, although highly esteemed by many, 
has too much foxiness to be high in quality; shell 
badly and do not keep well; of no value for wine 
making; ripens about with Concord; clusters, of medium 
size or large, usually shouldered, compact; berries, 
large, oval, light green or pale yellow; skin, thin, 
tender, astringent; seeds, separate easily from the 
pulp, rather numerous, and of large size. 

Aestivalis Grapes.— Cynthiana, Norton, Berckmans, 
Delaware, Herbemont, Lenoir, Moir, Walter. 

Norton: Leading wine grape in eastern America, but 
the fruit has small value for any other purpose. Vine, 
hardy, but requires a long, warm season to mature its 
fruit; has great adaptability to different soils, but 
thrives particularly well in rich alluvial soils; vines are 
robust, very productive, as free or more so from diseases 
than any other native grape, and very resistant to 
insects. Bunches, of medium size. Berries small, almost 
black; pulp, firm, rich, and spicy; pure-flavored but acid; 
skin, thick; fruit keeps well. 

Delaware: Standard grape in quality for eastern 
America. Vines, productive, hardy, and adapted to many 
soils and conditions; fairly immune to fungus diseases; 
next to the Concord, probably most popular grape for 
garden, commercial vineyard, and wine press now grown 



FRUIT CULTURE 121 

in eastern United States. Fruit, matures sufficiently 
early to make crop certain; its handsome red color 
makes it attractive; grapes keep and ship well. Faults 
are: Small size of vine, bunch and berry, and slowness 
of growth; suffers very seriously from the depredations 
of robins. 

Riparia Grapes. — Bacchus, Canada, Clinton, Elvira, 
Janesville, Noah. 

Bacchus: Wine grape grown from seed of Clinton, 
an older and better known grape, which it much re- 
sembles in vine characters, but surpasses in quality 
of fruit and in productiveness; little by little it is 
superseding its parent. Vines, vigorous, hardy, pro- 
ductive, free from mildew, and adapted to a great 
variety of soils. Bunches and berries, small, latter 
dark red; quality does not fit it for a dessert grape, 
being too sour, yet if left until after frosts it becomes 
very good. 

Noah: Rather largely grown in Missouri, where it is 
much used for wine making. Vine, remarkable for 
health and productiveness. Fruit, green, one of the few 
good Riparia grapes of this color. Clusters, for one of its 
species, are large, as are also the berries. Fruit ripens 
with the Concord or a little later, and neither keeps 
nor ships well. Seeds separate with difficulty from the 
pulp and are numerous; pulp, tough, juicy, and rather 
acid. Used for making white wines. 

Rotundifolia Grapes.— James, Thomas, Mish, Flowers, 
Memory, Scuppernong. 

James: Probably best general-purpose Rotundifolia 
grape for the South. Ripens toward the end of Aug. 
and remain on vines 2 or 3 wk. longer. Vines, vig- 
orous, productive, healthy; bunches bear from 4 to 12 
large, blue-black grapes of large size; skin, thin; pulp, 
sweet and juicy; quality, very good. 

Flowers: One of the very late Rotundifolias, ripening 
last of Sept. and remaining on the vine until last 
of Oct. Vines, vigorous, healthy, and exceedingly 



122 FRUIT CULTURE 

productive; bunches, bearing from 10 to 20 purplish- 
black, oblong, large berries; skin, thick and tough; 
acid, pulpy; quality, good only wTien very ripe. 

Memory: Considered best Rotundifolia table grape. 
Vines, vigorous and productive; bunches, bearing from 
4 to 12 large, rouiid, brownish-black berries; skin, thick 
and tough; pulp, juicy, sweet, tender; of very best 
quality. 

S cupper nong: Oldest of cultivated varieties of Rotun- 
difolia grapes, and still largely cultivated; also lightest 
in color of the varieties commonly cultivated, being a 
brownish amber. Vines, very vigorous, very healthy, and 
very productive. Bunches bear from 6 to 10 large ber- 
ries; skin, thin; pulp, sweet, juicy, vinous, and with a 
peculiar flavor characteristic of this variety; quality, 
very good. 

PRUNING AND TRAINING THE GRAPE 

In discussing the pruning of the grape, the following 
technical terms are often used: 

Trunk — the body of the vine when 2 or more yr. old. 

Arm — a branch from the trunk when 2 or more yr. old. 

Cane — l-yr.-old branch of an arm or of the trunk. 

Spur — a very short but annually lengthening arm, 
from which cane renewals are made. 

Shoot— 21. growing, leafy branch of the current season. 

When young grape vines are to be planted in per- 
manent places in a vineyard, the roots should be rather 
severely cut back, usually leaving stubs from 6 to 10 in. 
in length, and all dead or injured roots cut out. The 
top almost always should be cut back to a single cane 
and to two or three buds. 

The aim for the first two or three seasons should be to 
develop a good root system; to accomplish this the 
growth of the first summer is cut back, late in the 
winter or early in the spring, to two buds, leaving the 
vines in apparently the same condition as at setting. 
At the end of the first year all grapes to be grown on 



FRUIT CULTURE 123 

trellises should be tied up to keep them out of the 
way of the cultivator. Grapes to be grown on stakes 
are staked at this age also. 

Any fruit set the second season should be removed 
before it has attained much size. Two years after 
setting, the vines should be ready to train permanently 
on the trellis or stakes, as the case may be. East of 
the Rocky Mountains all species of grapes are grown 
commercially on trellises, or on wires stretched on 
posts. On the Pacific coast they are nearly always 
grown on stakes. 

Whatever the method of pruning and training chosen, 
the grower must keep in mind the relationship of the 
wood to fruit bearing; that is, grapes are borne on the 
base of shoots of the same year's growth, which in 
their turn spring from the canes of the preceding year. 

The average yield for a Concord grape vine is about 
15 lb. In order to produce this quantity, from forty to 
sixty clusters of grapes are required. As each shoot 
bears from two to three clusters, usually two, twenty 
to thirty buds must be left on the previous year's 
growth, or sufficient spurs to furnish the required 
number of clusters. These buds might be left on a 
single cane; but usually two, three, or more canes are 
selected, variously distributed on one or two main stems 
in accordance with different systems of training and 
trimming. Good pruning, then, consists in removing all 
wood except canes or spurs sufficient to furnish the 
shoots necessary for the desired number of clusters. 

The time for pruning grapes extends from the dropping 
of the leaves in the fall to a period just before the 
swelling of the buds in the spring. Some vineyardists 
prune after a vigorous flow of the sap has begun and 
claim that no serious injury results, but such bleeding 
must be devitalizing to the vines. In sections where 
winters are severe it is often necessary, in order to 
prevent freezing, to cover the vines in position or to 
lay them on the ground for covering. To lessen the 



124 FRUIT CULTURE 

area to be covered, it is best to prune some before 
covering. In such pruning it is advisable to leave more 
wood than is actually needed for the next year's crop, 
as there is danger of some of the buds being broken 
off or of the canes being otherwise injured by the 
covering and uncovering. It is seldom advisable to 
prune when vines are actually frozen, as frozen canes 
are brittle and easily broken during handling. 

Where the vines are in a vigorous condition the 
system of training to be adopted becomes somewhat 
optional with the grower, although there is no doubt 
that certain varieties do best when trained to a certain 
type. For example, it is generally agreed that strong- 
growing varieties like the Concord, Niagara, and others 
do best when trained with the shoots drooping, and the 
weaker and slower-growing varieties like the Delaware 
can be best trained to some form in which the shoots 
are upright, other conditions being the same. 

SPRAYING OF GRAPES 

The most serious insect pests attacking the grape are 
phylloxera, grape-vine fidia or grape-root worm, grape- 
vine flea beetle or steely flea beetle, grape-leaf hopper, 
grape-berry moth, and the rose chafer. Some one or 
several of these pests must be reckoned with in most 
parts of the country. 

The serious diseases of the grape are black rot, 
downy mildew, powdery mildew, anthracnose, and 
chlorosis, or yellow leaf. 

The best method of spraying for the control of such 
insects and diseases of the grape that can be controlled 
by spraying will vary. The following, however, will serve 
as a guide: 

1. For the control of the grape-vine flea beetle, spray 
thoroughly just before the buds begin to swell with 
arsenate-of-lead solution (4 lb. arsenate of lead to 50 gal. 
water). Later in the season, when the worms appear on 
the leaves, arsenate of lead should be added to one of 



FRUIT CULTURE 125 

the Bordeaux sprayings (8 lb. arsenate of lead to 150 gal. 
Bordeaux mixture). 

2. If anthracnose has to be combated, apply to the 
surface of the canes when the buds are swelling, but 
before they begin to open, a warm, saturated solution 
of copperas (iron sulphate), to which may be added if 
necessary to make it stronger, 1% of sulphuric acid. 
This solution is very caustic and should be handled 
with care. If the saturated solution of copperas is used 
alone the solution may be sprayed on, but if the 
sulphuric acid has been added, it is safer to apply it 
to the canes with a swab. Thoroughness is essential in 
this work, as all the surface of the canes must be cov- 
ered if the solution is to be effective. Anthracnose is 
not satisfactorily controlled by Bordeaux alone. 

3. For the control of the black rot, and incidentally 
for the control of downy mildew and powdery mildew, 
spray with Bordeaux mixture (4 lb. copper sulphate, 
4 lb. lime, water slaked, and 50 gal. water) just as the 
pink tips of the first leaves appear. 

4. From 10 to 14 da. after the spraying described in 
paragraph 3, spray again with the same strength Bor- 
deaux for the same troubles. 

5. Repeat the spraying just after blossoming. 

6. Repeat the spraying in from 10 to 14 da. later. 

7. Repeat the spraying in from 10 to 14 da. later. 

8. For the control of the grape-vine fidia, or grape 
root worm, while the beetles are feeding on the foliage 
about the middle of June, spray with a molasses- 
arsenical mixture (1 gal. molasses, 6 lb. arsenate of lead, 
100 gal. water). 

9. For the control of the grape leaf hopper, when the 
hoppers appear, spray with a nicotine preparation guar- 
anteed to contain at least 2.7% nicotine diluted with 65 
to 100 parts of water. 

10. For the control of the rose chafer, when the in- 
sects are present, spray with glucose-arsenate mixture 
(10 lb. arsenate of lead, 25 lb. glucose, 100 gal. water). 



126 FRUIT CULTURE 

11. If the sprayings for black rot are not necessary, 
other means of control must be applied for the powdery 
mildew. In such cases in dry climates, dusting the 
vines with flowers of sulphur is effective. 

12. If the vines are suffering from chlorosis, or yellow 
leaf, this trouble is thought by some to be overcome by 
applying a small quantity of iron sulphate to the soil 
about the vine. But as a number of the American 
varieties are known to be free from this trouble, plant- 
ing them is probably the wiser course. 



PLUMS 

VARIETIES OF PLUMS 

Plums grown in the United States and Canada may 
be divided into four groups: (1) Plums that have been 
introduced from Europe; (2) native plums; (3) plums 
introduced from Japan; and (4) hybrid plums. 

Of the European plums, only two species are of special 
interest to American growers. These are the Domestica, 
to which most of the large European plums grown in 
America belong, and, second, the Insititia, which are 
smaller plums and include fewer species of value. 

The native plums may be divided into the following 
prominent species: (1) Americana, known as the red 
plum, yellow horse, hog plum, and goose plum; this 
plum is grown over a large portion of America. (2) The 
second division, the Hortnlana, which includes a number 
of variable plums that are adapted to a wide range of 
climate and especially adapted to growing in the South- 
ern States and the Mississippi valley. The Hortulana 
make good stock upon which to graft varieties of the 
same and other native plums. (3) The third division 
of the native plums is Primus nigra. This species of plum 
grows further north than any other native plum and is 
often called the Canadian plum. The fruit of the Prunus 
nigra ripens earlier than that of the Americana, or 



FRUIT CULTURE 127 

Hortulana. It is more oblong in shape, darker in color, 
has less bloom and a finer skin that that of the 
Americana. 

The plums introduced from Japan belong to the variety 
known as Primus triUora. These plums are about as 
hardy as the Domestica, and some of them have proven 
of special worth. However, many varieties of Prunus 
triflora that have been introduced into America have 
proved worthless. 

Hybrid plums are produced by crossing different 
species. Many valuable hybrid plums are grown in 
America. 

The following are the most important varieties of 
plums grown in this country: 

Abundance: Triflora. Variable; several distinct 
strains exist; has been much overplanted. Fruit, ships 
and keeps poorly; subject to brown rot and drops 
readily; must be picked before it is ripe; color, pinkish 
red to dark red. 

Agen: Domestica. One of the best plums of Europe 
or America for prune making; rich in sugar and solids; 
very good preserving plum; its defect is lack of size; 
many strains of this variety. Tree, bears regularly and 
heavily. Fruit, hangs well on trees; excellent for home 
orchard and for commercial use. 

Apple: Triflora. Fruit, large and has firm, compact, 
red flesh; excellent keeper; fruit has peculiar flavor; 
inferior for dessert or kitchen. Tree, robust grower. 

Arch Duke: Domestica. Well known. Fruit, large, 
dark, rich purple; keeps and ships well; suitable for 
home and market use. Tree, medium grower. Season, late. 

Arctic: Domestica. Tree, hardy and productive; small; 
medium grower. Frviit, m.edium size; blue. Mid-season. 

Bavay: Domestica. One of the best of the green 
plums; a descendant of Reine Claude. Fruit, excellent 
dessert plum; high flavor; good canner; keeps well and 
flavor not quite equal to Reine Claude. Tree, medium 
size, vigorous. Season, late. 



128 FRUIT CULTURE 

Bradshaw : Domestica. Tree, regular bearer, produc- 
tive, hardy, healthy. Fruit, ships well; not very high 
in flavor. Ripens in peach season, which is against it. 
Leads all other plums in number of trees in New York. 

Burbank: Triflora. Second to Abundance in number 
of trees planted in New York. Fruit, handsome, red; 
keeps and ships better than Abundance. Ripens a week 
later than Abundance. Tree, vigorous, but wood is 
brittle. 

Compass: Hybrid of American type. It is being adver- 
tised as of value commercially for the Northwest. Fruit, 
small and of no value unless for regions mentioned. 

Datnsons: Insititia. Name is from Wamascus. Fruit, 
usually oval, black; chiefly used for making preserves. 
Tree, scarcely surpassed in productiveness, vigor, and 
hardiness by any of the plums. The Damsons show 
great adaptability to various soils and climates. There 
are a number of improved varieties of Damson, among 
which are Crittenden, Shropshire, a standard, and French. 
Many of these improved varieties excel the Damson in 
quality. 

Diamond: Domestica. Fruit, large, well formed; flesh, 
coarse; flavor, poor; ships well; otherwise it is disap- 
pointing for market fruit. Tree, vigorous, hardy, and 
productive. 

German Prune: Domestica. One of the oldest plums 
under cultivation; of several strains. Tree, medium to 
large; purplish black; flesh, yellowish green. Dis- 
tributed over the whole country. Season, late. 

Golden Drop: Domestica. Largest and best of the 
yellow plums; fit for the home garden only. 

Grand Duke: Domestica. Tree, rather late in coming 
into bearing; fruit, excellent market plum, hangs well, 
and ships well; flavor moderate; good canner; large 
sized. Season, late. 

Giieii. Domestica. One of the standards. Tree, bears 
early and abundantly; large, vigorous, healthy, hardy. 
Fruit, of poor quality, but excellent shipper. 



FRUIT CULTURE 129 

Italian Prune: Domestica. One of the most widely 
grown of all plums; leading plum in the Pacific North- 
west. Fruit, fine flavor; purple; attractive when cooked; 
ships well. Tree, large; hardy, productive; regular 
bearer, but often capricious as to soil and climate. 

Lombard: Domestica. One of the most easily grown 
of all plums. Tree, hardy, productive; regular bearer; 
much used as a stock on which to graft weaker growing 
varieties. Fruit, very poor in quality. 

Middlehurg : Domestica. A very good late pUun for 
New York. Fruit, purple. Not enough planted. 

Monarch: Domestica. One of the most popular of the 
recent introductions. Fruit, of moderate quality; color, 
purple. 

October: Triflora. Late plum. Tree, vigorous, rather 
tardy in bearing in some places. Mid-season or later. 
Fruit, dark red. 

Pond: Domestica. Fruit, one of the largest; poor 
quality; purple. 

Pottaivattamie: Native. Especially adapted to north- 
ern latitudes. Fruit, good quality for a native plum. 
Tree, dwarf, vigorous, productive. 

Quackenboss: Domestica. Tree, large, vigorous, hardy. 
Fruit, purple, large, good quality. One of the best. 

Reine Claude: Domestica. Fruit, unexcelled in quality. 
Tree, moderate; grows very poorly in the nursery; 
productive; is apt to sun scald. 

Satsuma: Triflora. Fruit, red flesh; one of the best of 
its class in quality; keeps and ships well; is subject 
to brown rot in the Southern States. Tree, fairly good 
grower; hardy; productive. 

Washington: One of the largest of the Reine Claude 
or green gage type. Fruit, fine flavor; suitable for home 
use. 

Wayland: Hortulana. Suitable for Central Iowa and 
Nebraska. Fruit, sour and small; excellent for jelly. 

Wood: Americana. Can be recommended for the cold 
parts of the country. Fruit, red. 



130 FRUIT CULTURE 

Yellow Egg: Domestica. Fruit, largest and most 
handsome of the yellow plums; good for culinary use. 

PRUNING OF PLUMS 

As a rule, the plum should be pruned as little as 
possible. More growers overprune plum trees than 
underprune them; and this is a serious condition, be- 
cause a plum tree will not recover from overpruning 
nearly so readily as will an apple tree. 

Plum trees are grown in two types, or forms. The 
first type has a leader, or main stem, with four or five 
branches coming from it at different points. This type 
is often used in New York for the Domestica and 
Damson plums. The second type of pruning is more 
common on the Triflora group of plums; in this it is 
usual to start four or five branches at a head about 
2 ft. from the ground, and remove the leader, making 
the tree into a vase shape, somewhat like an inverted 
umbrella; the branches should be spaced 4 to 6 in. 
apart on the trunk to prevent splitting. 

Subsequent pruning of the plum consists of the re- 
moval of limbs which cross and in keeping the trees 
low. Until the trees begin to bear, as little pruning as 
possible should be given; if this policy is adhered to 
it will tend to make the trees bear early. One dis- 
advantage attending excessive pruning is that such a 
practice once started must be continued. 

The trees should be kept low to lessen the expense 
of picking. In some orchards, plum trees are shorn off 
at a certain height and are never allowed to make a 
growth of more than two or three buds above this each 
year. Some of the Americana varieties make such a 
crooked, dense growth that considerable pruning is 
necessary in order to allow sufficient room for the 
pickers to harvest the fruit. 



FRUIT CULTURE 131 

SPRAYING OF PLUMS 

The principal insect attacking the plum is the plum 
curculio. The principal diseases of the plum are the 
black knot, brown rot, plum pockets, and leaf spot, 
peach yellow and little peach. 

The following method of spraying the plum has been 
recommended: 

1. If San Jose scale is present, spray just before the 
buds open in the spring with lime-sulphur solution 
(sp. gr. 1.03— that is, concentrated lime-sulphur of ZZ° 
Baume diluted 1 to 8 with water). 

2. Just after the blossoms fall, spray with arsenate 
of lead (3 to 4 lb. arsenate of lead, 100 gal. water) for the 
control of the plum curculio. 

3. About 10 da. after the blossoms have fallen, or 
about the time when the shucks, or calyces, are being 
shed from the fruit, spray with arsenate of lead (3 to 
4 lb. arsenate of lead, 50 gal. water) combined with 
self-boiled lime-sulphur (8 lb. sulphur, 8 lb. lime, 50 gal. 
water), for the control of the plum curculio, leaf spot, 
and brown rot. 

4. About 2 to 3 wk. after the spraying described in 
paragraph 3, spray with self-boiled lime-sulphur (8 lb. 
sulphur, 8 ib. lime, 50 gal. water) for the control of 
leaf spot and brown rot. 

5. About 1 mo. before fruit ripens repeat spraying 
given in paragraph 4 for the control of the fruit spot 
and brown rot. 



CHERRIES 

VARIETIES OF CHERRIES 

There are two main types of cherries, sour cherries 
and sweet cherries. The sour cherries most commonly 
grown are included in two general groups, the Mont- 
morency group, and the Morello group. The most im- 
portant of the sour cherries commercially are: 



132 FRUIT CULTURE 

Baldivin: Morello type. Tree has a stout spreading 
top and is regarded as promising. 

Brusseler Braune : Very late in ripening, July 15 to 25. 
Tree, medium to large, upright in type; long branches; 
slender; twigs, light gray and covered with numerous 
lenticels; leaves, medium in thickness and slightly 
rough; dark green on the upper surface, much lighter 
below; serrated on the edge. In some sections, a poor 
bearer. 

Dye House: Montmorency group. Fruit, medium to 
small; smaller than Early Richmond and Montmorency; 
quality, very good; flavor, slightly acid. 

Early Richmond: Montmorency group. Season, early, 
or moderately early, June 15. Tree, usually regarded as 
productive, but inclined to be short lived; hardy, vig- 
orous, profuse, and regular bearer. Fruit, medium in 
size, light red; poor for shipping. 

English Morello: Morello group. Classed as one of 
the best sorts, being very productive and hardy; a firm 
and excellent shipper. One of the oldest varieties and 
has been grown in this country for many years. Season, 
late, about July 15 to 20 in Central Iowa. Tree, medium 
and spreading; slender and hardy in growth. 

Montmorency: Montmorency group. Much confusion 
exists in regard to the Montmorency variety. There are 
at least two strains, the long-stemmed, or Montmorency 
Ordinaire, and the sort-stemmed, which is the large 
Montmorency and considered to be of the best quality, 
but a poor bearer. The long-stemmed variety is the one 
most generally distributed and the one that is generally 
secured by the public even when named Montmorency or 
Montmorency Ordinaire or Montmorency Extraordinaire, 
the short-stemmed Montmorency being practically non- 
existent in this country. The Montmorency Ordinaire 
is the Standard variety, and fruits from June 20 to 
about July 1, or mid-season. 

Ostheim: Morello group. Really consists of a number 
of types. Has been grown in the United States for 



FRUIT CULTURE 133 

nearly a century. Fruit, round, medium to dark red; 
juicy; skin, tough; quality, fair. Planted in large num- 
bers in some sections. 

Siida: Morello group. Hard to distinguish the fruit 
of this variety from Wragg or English Morello, the 
only essential difference being in the stem; but the 
tree is more upright and can thus be readily distinguished 
from these varieties. Tree, good, prolific bearer in some 
sections. 

Wragg: Morello. Regarded by some as little more 
than a large English Morello, which is somewhat later; 
is being considerably planted in all parts of the North- 
west; now considered a standard variety. 

The two main groups of sweet cherries commercially 
are the Bigarreaux and the Dukes. The principal varie- 
ties of the Bigarreaux group are: 

Ring: Fruit, very large, almost flat, with a sweet 
flavor; flesh, firm; ripens in mid-season; high in 
quality; and is regarded as promising. 

Centennial: Said to be a seedling of Napoleon; flesh 
somewhat similar to Yellow Spanish. Considered prom- 
ising, especially on the Pacific coast. 

Elton: Tree, good grower, but lacks productiveness in 
some sections. Fruit, very large, heart shaped; skin, 
pale yellow, with red blush; flesh, medium light, firm, 
with a sweet flavor of the best quality. Desirable for 
some sections. Mid-season. 

Lambert: Originated in Oregon. Fruit, large to very 
large; heart shaped; color, dark amber, turning a dark 
red magenta as fruit matures; flesh, dark, rich, firm, 
and juicy, with a good flavor; pit, small for so large a 
fruit. 

Napoleon, or Royal Ann: One of the most popular 
varieties. Tree, strong; vigorous in growth; very pro- 
ductive. Fruit, large, good quality; flesh, light colored. 
Mid-season. 

Rockport: Early to mid-season. Fruit, quality very 
good. Tree, moderate in vigor. 



134 FRUIT CULTURE 

Black Tartarian: One of the oldest and most popular 
varieties; lacks in vigor and hardiness when compared 
with Windsor and Napoleon. Fruit, very large, dark 
red; flesh, of good quality. 

Wiytdsor: Origin, Ontario, Canada. One of the new 
varieties that has made a good reputation; should be 
included in almost all cherry orchards. Tree, hardy, 
vigorous, and very productive. Fruit, heart shaped, 
dark liver colored; flesh, dark red, firm, fine quality. 

Wood, or Governor Wood: Recommended for all 
near-by markets and home use. Tree, strong, vigorous 
grower, and productive. Fruit, medium to large; pale 
yellow, with a reddish blush; flesh, tender and juicy; 
of good quality. 

Yellow Spanish: Old and well-known variety and does 
well under many conditions. Tree, strong grower and 
productive. Fruit, large sized; good quality. 

The Dukes have one very undesirable feature in that 
they tend to ripen their fruit over a considerable period 
of time. In growth of tree they vary from the upright 
to a round, spreading head. As stated before, these are 
classed with the sweet cherries, but in flavor the fruit 
is neither sweet nor sour, being rather half way. It is 
usually tender, juicy, excellent in flavor, and can be 
used both fresh and preserved. In so far as acreage is 
concerned, the Dukes do not occupy a very important 
position, for they are poor shippers and are subject 
to rot. 

Eugenie: Tree, lacks vigor, grows upright, and is fairly 
productive; one of the earliest to ripen and lasts over 
a long season; flesh, and juice, dark red; and flavor 
fine. 

Louis Philippe: Downing states that the tree is up- 
right, spreading in growth; skin, rich; dark; flesh, dark 
red. Said to be productive. Medium to late. 

Magnifique : One of the latest of all cherries to ripen 
and of value on this account. Tree, upright, spreading 
grower, productive; but the fruit is of too light a shade 



FRUIT CULTURE 135 

of red to take well on the market; flesh, pale yellow, 
firm, and juicy. 

May Duke; One of the most popular of all varieties, 
being one of the earliest to ripen. Tree, vigorous 
grower, productive. Fruit, dark red. 

Montr euil Belle De: Comparatively new; productive 
and profitable. Fruit, glossy red, almost black; flesh 
and juice, dark red. Medium late in season and ripens 
in good season for a Duke. 

Clivet: Tree, strong, spreading grower, frequently re- 
ported as unproductive. Fruit, color, dark red. Season, 
medium late. 

PRUNING OF CHERRIES 

Compared with other fruits, the cherry receives little 
pruning, especially after the first 2 or 3 yr. If the 
head is started within 18 in. of the ground and oppor- 
tunity is given for the tree to spread, a desirable 
spreading habit may be started. Some of the most 
successful growers of cherries prefer to train their trees 
with a leader from which from three to five main 
branches are allowed to develop. , 

During the first year, just sufficient wood should be 
removed to secure the spreading habit, and no more. 
When a low-headed tree of this sort is forced to spread 
its growth, most of the fruit may be readily picked, 
thus materially reducing the cost of picking, and the 
spreading branches shade the trunk and to some extent 
prevent the cracking and splitting seen on some trunks. 

When the trees reach bearing age, comparatively little 
pruning is needed other than to take out wood that 
crosses, and wood showing disease. 

SPRAYIJfG OF CHERRIES 

Among the principal insects attacking the cherry are 
the black cherry aphis, plum curculio, San Jose scale, 
and other scale insects. The principal fungus diseases 
of the cherry are the black knot, brown rot, shot-hole 
fungus, or leaf blight, and powdery mildew. 



136 FRUIT CULTURE 

The following system of spraying will be found ef- 
fective in controlling the insect and disease troubles 
of the cherry: 

1. Just before the leaf buds break, or open, spray 
with a lime-sulphur solution (sp. gr. 1.03 — that is, con- 
centrated lime-sulphur of iZ° Baume diluted 1 to 8 with 
water). This spraying is for the control of the San 
Jose and other scales. 

2. Just before the fruit buds burst open, spray with 
a lime-sulphur solution (sp. gr. 1.007 to 1.006— that is, 
concentrated lime-sulphur of 2ii° Baume diluted either 
1 to 40 or 1 to 50 with water), to which has been added 
arsenate of lead (1^ or 2 lb. arsenate of lead to 50 gal. 
lime-sulphur solution). This spraying is for the con- 
trol of the plum curculio and the fungus diseases. 

3. As soon as the fruit has set, spray again with the 
same lime-sulphur-arsenate-of-lead solution given in 
paragraph 2, for the control of both the insect and the 
fungus troubles. In some cases it may be advisable to 
make two or three later sprayings with the same ma- 
terial. 

Bordeaux mixture is sometimes used in place of the 
dilute lime-sulphur solution given in paragraph 2, but 
on account of the liability of injuring the foliage, this 
is not to be recommended. 



QUINCES 

VARIETIES OF QUINCES 

There are comparatively few varieties of quinces in 
cultivation. The following are brief descriptions of the 
important commercial varieties, including information 
that the prospective planter would find useful in se- 
lecting varieties for his orchard: 

Orange, or Apple Quince: Probably most important 
commercially. Tree, moderately vigorous, with spread- 
ing habits. Fruit, variable in size and shape, and is 



FRUIT CULTURE 137 

modified somewhat by the treatment it receives; it may 
be pear shaped or flattened on the end something like 
an apple; color, pale orange, surface being moderately 
covered with down. Flesh, firm and of good flavor. Mid- 
season variety and when well grown can be kept until 
Feb. Best general-purpose variety. 

Champion : Tree, upright grower, somewhat taller than 
Orange. Fruit, large, pear-shaped and furrowed about 
the top; color, generally greenish yellow; covered with 
a prominent fuzz; late in maturing and in some places 
does not ripen well; it is one of the best keepers. 

Rae, or Rae's Mammoth: Tree, small, of two-thirds the 
size of Orange at the same age. Fruit, large to very 
large; somewhat pear shaped; color, orange; surface, 
smooth; flesh, of good quality; ripens early but does not 
keep as well as Orange. 

Meech, Meech's Prolific: Tree, something like Orange, 
bears young; fairly good cropper. Fruit, handsome but 
inclined to be small and not as valuable for market as 
some other varieties. 

Missouri Mammoth: Tree, one of the largest and most 
handsome; bears reasonably young; generally regarded 
as prolific. Fruit, rich and aromatic. 

Bourgeat: Tree, strong grower; regarded as a good 
bearer. Fruit, bright golden yellow; large in size, with 
a small core; good keeper; can be held until spring. 

Van Deman : Recent introduction of Luther Burbank; 
by some claimed to be one of the hardiest and surest 
bearers in existence. Fruit, ripens throughout a com- 
paratively long season and is claimed to be a good 
keeper. 

Chinese, or Hong Kong: Sometimes catalogued as a 
new, unique, and distinct fruit. Fruit, may be regarded 
as very large in size, somewhat oblong in shape. Tree, 
not unlike an ordinary quince tree in habit; it is gen- 
erally regarded as hardy in New York. Of no particu- 
lar value for commercial growing. 



138 FRUIT CULTURE 

PRUNING OF QUINCES 

When the quince is planted direct from the nursery 
TOW and already has a good head started within a few 
inches of the ground, all the pruning necessary is to 
remove any excess of limbs and plant as it is; cutting 
back the terminal is not even necessary. However, if 
the tree has become dried in shipment and the tips of 
the limbs are dead, all dead parts should be pruned off. 

Some quince growers prune their trees severely, as 
much as one-half of the new growth each year, but 
such men are usually those who force their trees with 
manures and other nitrogenous fertilizers, and who 
must prune severely to keep the trees within bounds. 
The better practice seems to be to use nitrogenous 
fertilizers sparingly and to prune very little. 

A good plan is to head the trees from 6 to 8 in. from 
the ground and to allow them to grow at will until 
they come into bearing, the amount of pruning necessary 
to keep the fire blight in subjection being adequate. At 
the end of 4 years or so the trees may need heading 
back, but this is a matter of judgment in each case. 
In such cases, winter pruning is the best. 

After the tree comes into bearing and thinning of 
the fruit is desirable in order to improve the size and 
quality of the fruit borne, heading in may be practiced. 
This consists in cutting back the annual growth a 
certain amount each year. There is, however, danger 
in this pruning, because the quince, like the pear, is 
subject to fire blight, and as excessive pruning will 
cause an excessive growth of tender sprouts on which 
the fire blight is especially severe, the pruning should 
be done with care and judgment. 

SPRAYING OF QUINCES 

The principal insects attacking the quince are the 
round-headed apple-tree borer, quince curculio, coddling 
moth, and San Jose scale, though the latter, very 



FRUIT CULTURE 139 

fortunately, seldom attacks the quince and when it does 
causes very little harm. The most serious diseases of 
the quince are fire blight, leaf and fruit spot, or black 
spot, and rust, or cedar rust. 

The following system of spraying the quince is fol- 
lowed by some of the best commercial growers: 

1. Just before the blossoms open, spray with Bordeaux 
mixture (6 lb. copper sulphate, 6 lb. lime, water 
slaked, 50 gal. water) ; Bordeaux mixture appears to be 
well adapted to the requirements of the quince. Arsenate 
of lead (2 or 3 lb. arsenate of lead to 50 gal. of fungicide 
solution) should also be used with the fungicide spray 
at this time. This spraying is for the control of leaf 
and fruit spot, or black spot, rust, and curculio. 

2. Immediately after the blossoms have fallen, or 
even while the last of the petals are falling, spray 
with Bordeaux mixture (3 lb. copper sulphate, 4 lb. 
lime, water slaked, 50 gal. water) and arsenate of lead 
(2 or 3 lb. arsenate of lead to 50 gal. spray solution). 
This spraying is for the control of the same troubles 
mentioned in paragraph 1. 

3. From three to four other sprayings at intervals of 
10 days after the spraying described in paragraph 2 
will be sufficient to keep the fruit and foliage in 
excellent condition. 



STRAWBERRIES 

VARIETIES OF STRAWBERRIES 

The following varieties of strawberries have been 
recommended for commercial planting, the varieties 
being named in the order of their ripening and 
designated as perfect and imperfect. These terms refer 
to the sex of the flowers. Perfect flowers have both 
sets of sexual organs, and varieties having them are 
self- fertile; varieties having only the pistils, or female 
organs, cannot fertilize themselves and should be planted 
with perfect varieties. 



140 FRUIT CULTURE 

Michel's Early: Perfect. Fruit, pointed, conical; me- 
dium to below in size; seeds, not prominent; dull, pale 
red; flesh, pale, juicy, acid, subacid when dead ripe; 
rather soft; quality medium. Season, extra early; plant, 
moderately vigorous. Foliage, moderately good; rusts 
slightly to considerably. 

Virginia: Imperfect. Plants, few in number; of 
medium vigor; healthy; productive. Leaves, inclined to 
be large; rather dark green. Blooms early in mid-sea- 
son; ripens slightly before mid-season; picks easily. 
Seeds, deeply depressed. Fruit, large to medium, those 
ripening late being small; roundish conic to wedge, 
bluntly pointed and often with depression at apex; 
color, light and dark glossy scarlet, resembling Hunn. 
Flesh, medium red; of average firmness; mild; not high 
in flavor or quality. Only a fairly desirable variety. 

Beder Wood: Perfect. Fruit, round to conical; medium 
size; pale red; seeds, not prominent; flesh, pale, juicy, 
acid, moderately firm, medium quality. Season, early to 
extra early. Plant, vigorous; runners numerous; foliage 
moderately good; rusts considerably. 

Clyde: Perfect. Fruit, round, large to very large, 
pale red; seeds not prominent; flesh, pale red, juicy, 
subacid, pleasant, firm, and above medium in quality. 
Season, early to medium. Plant, vigorous, with numer- 
ous runners. Foliage, poor to moderately good; rusts 
considerably. 

Lovett: Perfect. Fruit, pointed to wedge conical; 
above medium size; bright red, glossy; flesh, bright red, 
juicy, acid, moderately firm, and above medium in 
quality. Season, early to medium. Plant, vigorous, with 
but few runners; poor to moderately good foliage; rusts 
considerably. Attractive berry. 

War-Held: Imperfect. Fruit, pointed conical; medium 
to above medium size; deep red, glossy; seeds, rather 
prominent; flesh, deep red, juicy, acid, moderately firm; 
quality, medium. Season early to medium. Plants, vigor- 
ous, with large number of runners; foliage moderately 



FRUIT CULTURE 141 

good; rusts considerably. Handsome berry and a good 
cropper. 

Glen Mary: Perfect. Fruit, irregular, roundish to 
wedge conical; very large to large; deep red at base, 
becoming pale toward tip; seeds not prominent; flesh, 
bright red, juicy, rather watery; subacid, firm, of 
medium quality. Season, medium. Plant, moderately 
vigorous, with numerous runners; foliage, moderately 
good to good; rusts considerably. 

Senator Dunlap : Perfect. Fruit, handsome, pointed, 
wedge shaped; medium to large in size; deep, glossy 
red; seeds, not prominent; flesh, rich red, juicy, tender, 
subacid, moderately firm; above medium quality. Sea- 
son, early. Plant, vigorous, with large number of run- 
ners; productive; foliage, moderately good; rusts con- 
siderably. 

Sample: Imperfect. Fruit, handsome, pointed, regular 
in shape; above medium to large; bright or rather deep, 
glossy red; seeds fairly prominent; flesh, bright red, 
juicy, almost watery, subacid, moderately firm; quality, 
medium. Season, medium to late. Plant, vigorous, 
productive, with large number of runners; foliage, mod- 
erately good to good; rusts considerably. 

President: Imperfect. Plant has numerous runners; 
vigorous; somewhat injured by blight; productive; 
leaves, large, dark green. Blooms and ripens in mid- 
season; picks easily. Fruit, of largest size, slightly 
conic; seeds, slightly depressed; attractive bright scar- 
let; flesh, medium light color, firm, moderately juicy, 
mild; fair to good quality; good variety where size and 
color are prime requisites. 

Brandywine: Perfect. Roundish to sugar loafed; me- 
dium to large; deep, dull red; appearance, unattractive; 
seeds, not prominent; flesh, bright red, juicy; sub- 
acid, good, firm, and of good quality. Season, late. 
Plant, vigorous grower, with medium number of runners; 
foliage, moderately good to good; rusts slightly to con- 
siderably. Good late variety. 



142 FRUIT CULTURE 

Gandy: Perfect. Roundish; medium to large; pale, 
dull red; seeds, not specially prominent; flesh, bright 
red, juicy, subacid, pleasant, firm; above medium to 
good in quality. Season, late. Plant, moderately vig- 
orous, with a moderate number of runners; foliage, good; 
rusts slightly. 

Marshall: Perfect. Fruit, pointed conical; large to 
very large; deep red; seeds, not prominent; flesh, pale 
red, moderately juicy, mildly subacid, firm, of good 
quality. Season, medium to late. Plant, vigorous, with 
a large number of runners; foliage good; rusts consid- 
erably. Probably better for home use than for market. 

Bubach: Imperfect. Fruit, irregular wedge shaped; 
very large; bright red; seeds, not prominent; flesh, 
bright red, juicy, subacid, moderately firm; of good 
quality. Season, medium to late. Plant, vigorous, with 
moderate number of runners; foliage, moderately good, 
but rusts considerably. One of most satisfactory in 
regard to size and appearance of fruit, productiveness, 
and good foliage. 

Steven's Late Champion: Perfect or semiperfect. Plant, 
sets few plants; vigorous, healthy; unproductive; leaves, 
large; dark green. Blooms and ripens in mid-season; 
picks easily. Fruit, large; retains its size well through 
the season; seeds, depressed; irregular in shape, but 
averaging wedge shaped; flesh, attractive light scarlet, 
well colored, firm, agreeably acid; quality, good. Plants 
should be set closer than most varieties. 

SPRAYING OF STRAWBERRIES 

The principal insect enemy of the strawberry is the 
white grub, though the strawberry leaf roller often does 
considerable damage, and the most serious diseases are 
the leaf spot, leaf blight, or rust. When once in a straw- 
berry bed, the white grub can be controlled only by digging 
it out from below the crown of the infested plant, and by 
cultivating the land about the plants early in the fall. 
Strawberries should not be set on old sod land which is 



FRUIT CULTURE 143 

likely to be infested with white grubs. If cultivated for a 
year in corn or other farm crops (not potatoes) upon 
which the grub does not feed, a field will be rid of most 
of them. 

The following method of spraying for the control of 
leaf spot and the leaf roller has been recommended: 

1. Soon after the growth of the newly set plants be- 
gins, spray with Bordeaux mixture (5 lb. copper 
sulphate, 5 lb. lime, water slaked, 50 gal. water). 

2. Repeat this spraying in about 2 wk. and two or 
three times more during the first season, as may be 
needed. 

3. The second spring, before the plants blossom, spray 
with the Bordeaux mixture of the formula given in 
paragraph 1. Whenever the strawberry leaf roller is 
present add from 2 to 3 lb. arsenate of lead to each 
50 gal. of Bordeaux solution. 

4. Two weeks later give another spraying with the 
Bordeaux mixture mentioned in paragraph 1. 



RASPBERRIES 

VARIETIES OF RASPBERRIES 

Red Raspberries. — The varieties of red raspberries 
most usually planted are: 

Cuthbert: Bush, strong grower but only moderately 
hardy; where hardy, it is productive and is the main 
crop variety. Fruit, large, dull red, moderately juicy, 
of good quality, and a good shipper. Mid-season. 

Herbert: Bush, strong grower, hardy, and very pro- 
ductive. Fruit, bright red, sweet, juicy, and of good 
quality. Mid-season. Likely to replace Cuthbert in 
localities where that variety is not sufficiently hardy. 

Loudon: Bush, only medium grower, hardy, but not 
productive in all localities. Fruit, large and of good 
flavor. Mid-season. 



144 FRUIT CULTURE 

Marlboro: Bush, fairly strong grower, hardy, usually 
productive. Fruit, medium or a little larger; bright red, 
and of medium quality. Best early variety. 

Black Raspberries.— The most commonly planted va- 
rieties of black raspberries are: 

Cumberland : Bush, strong grower; one of the hardiest, 
productive. Fruit, large, black, sweet, and of good 
quality. Season, medium, early. 

Gregg: Bush, very strong grower; not hardy in all 
localities, but productive where hardy. One of most 
widely planted black raspberries. Fruit, large to very 
large; black, with a gray bloom; moderately juicy, 
sweet, and of good quality. Season, late. 

Kansas: Bush, moderately vigorous grower; pro- 
ductive; not hardy in all localities, but promising where 
hardy. Fruit, above average in size; glossy black, and 
of good quality. Mid-season. 

Black Diamond: Bush, vigorous grower; resistant to 
disease; very productive. Fruit, large, black; good 
shipper. Mid-season, a few days later than Kansas. 

Ohio: Bush, strong grower; productive. Fruit, of 
medium size, but very seedy and for this reason very 
desirable for drying, because it will yield a high 
percentage of dried fruit to the bushel. 

Palmer: Bush, strong grower; not always hardy; 
moderately productive. Fruit, medium size; black, juicy, 
sweet, and of good quality. Season, early. Probably 
best of the early varieties in localities where it does 
not winter-kill. 

Purple-Cane Raspberries.— The purple-cane varieties 
are not of much importance commercially. Two of the 
best are: 

Shaffer: Bush, very strong grower; fairly hardy; very 
productive when canes are not winter-killed. Fruit, 
large, dark, purplish red; juicy; quality, fair. Season, 
medium to late. 

Columbian: Bush, strong grower; very productive when 
canes are not injured during the winter. Fruit, large, 



FRUIT CULTURE 145 

dark purplish red, juicy, and of good quality. Season, 
late. 

PRUNING OF RASPBERRIES 

Red Raspberry.— The wood of the red raspberry is 
biennial— that is, it lives for 2 yr. ; but the roots 
are perennial — that is, they live year after year. The 
young canes shoot up from the roots in the spring and 
should be allowed to grow at will during the first season. 
The second spring each l-yr.-old cane should be cut 
back to a height of about 2 ft. to cause the development 
of laterals on which the fruit is to be borne. As soon 
as the fruit has been picked from these in the summer, 
the old canes should be cut out to allow room for the 
development of the new canes. Some growers summer 
prune the young canes of the red raspberry, but this 
is not generally recommended. 

Black Raspberry.— The wood and roots of the black 
raspberry are similar in growth to that of the red rasp- 
berry, but the pruning is different. As soon as the young 
canes that start up from the crown of the plant reach 
a height of 2 to 2]^ ft. their tender tips, or terminal buds, 
should be pinched off with the fingers. This will pre- 
vent the further elongation of the cane and force the 
growth of the lower buds into lateral branches. The 
second spring the laterals of these l-yr.-old canes 
should be cut back so that the cane will somewhat re- 
semble a small conical tree, the lower side branches 
being cut back to a length of about 18 in. and each 
branch above proportionately shorter. These laterals 
will in turn throw out side branches on which the 
fruit will be borne during the summer. As soon as 
the fruit has been picked the old canes that bore it 
should be cut off close to the ground, taken out of the 
plantation and burned. On soils where the growth of 
black raspberries is very vigorous, the canes are sup- 
ported by wires stretched on posts. 

Purple-Cane Raspberries.— The pruning of the purple- 
cane raspberry is similar to that of the black raspberry, 
10 



146 FRUIT CULTURE 

■except that as the growth is somewhat more vigorous the 
young canes should be allowed to grow to a height of 
21/2 to 3 ft. before being pinched off. 



BLACKBERRIES AND DEWBERRIES 

VARIETIES 

Blackberries.— Blackberries are a popular bush fruit 
and a large number of varieties are planted. Those 
most extensively planted are: 

Agawani: Bush, vigorous grower; hardy and pro- 
ductive. Fruit, medium to large; glossy black, firm, 
juicy, sweet, and of good quality. Mid-season or a 
little earlier. 

Eldorado: Bush, strong grower; hardy, but only mod- 
erately productive. Fruit, black, sweet, juicy, and of 
good quality. Season, about same as Agawam. 

Mcrsereau: Bush, good grower but not as hardy as 
Agawam. Fruit, above medium size; glossy black, sweet. 

Rathhun: Bush, moderately strong grower, but lacks 
hardiness. Fruit, large, black, and of good quality. 

Snyder: Bush, vigorous and very hardy. Fruit, me- 
dium size; usually black but sometimes with a reddish 
tinge; juicy, sweet, and of good quality. Mid-season 
or a little earlier. 

Dewberries.— Two of the most prominent varieties of 
dewberries are: 

Lucretia: Bush, good grower but not hardy in north- 
ern localities. Fruit, large, glossy black, sweet, juicy, 
and of good quality. Season, early. 1 

Mayes: Bush, strong grower but lacks hardiness. 
Fruit, very large; glossy black, juicy, and of good 
<iuality. Season, very early— earlier than Lucretia. 

PRUNING OF BLACKBERRIES AND DEWBERRIES 

Blackberries.— The pruning of the blackberry is also 
similar to that of the black raspberry, the growth of 



FRUIT CULTURE 147 

the wood and of the roots being the same, except that 
the suckers, or young canes, spring up from the roots. 
When the young canes are 18 to 24 in. high their tips 
should be pinched off and all except three or four of 
the strongest canes should be cut out. The second 
spring the laterals forced into growth by the previous 
summer pruning should be pruned so that each cane 
will assume a conical appearance, with the lower lat- 
erals about 18 in. long, though the proper length varies 
considerably with different varieties. As soon as the 
old canes have borne fruit they should be cut out and 
burned. The second year from five to six of the young 
canes should be allowed to grow, and should likewise 
be pinched off at a height of 18 to 24 in. The young 
canes will not all reach the required height at the same 
time, and for this reason the patch must be gone over 
several times. Blackberries are frequently supported 
on wires or stakes. 

Dewberries.— Though the canes of the dewberry are 
very similar in growth to those of the other brambles, 
they grow long and trail much more along the ground. 
The dewberry is not summer pruned like the black- 
berry, but the l-yr.-old canes, if too long, are cut back 
in the spring to a length of 18 to 24 in., and are thinned 
out to four or five strong canes in a hill. On account 
of their drooping, or trailing, habit of growth, the dew- 
berry canes that are to bear fruit should be tied up 
in the spring; this will prevent the fruit from becoming 
soiled and will make cultivation easier. The young 
canes are allowed to trail along the ground, where their 
tips take root and form new plants, which may be used 
for starting new plantations. 

SPRAYING OF RASPBERRIES, BLACKBERRIES, 
AND DEWBERRIES 
Spraying of Raspberries.— The principal insects that 
attack raspberries, blackberries, and dewberries are 
the saw fly and the cane borer. 



148 FRUIT CULTURE 

The principal fungous diseases of these small fruits are 
the following: Anthracnose, which is very destructive 
to black raspberries but not often a serious problem on 
red raspberries; cane wilt, or cane blight, a destructive 
disease on both red and black raspberries; crown gall, 
or root knot, a destructive disease on red raspberries; 
and red rust, often a serious trouble on black rasp- 
berries and blackberries, but which does not affect red 
raspberries. 

Spraying is not often practiced on raspberries, black- 
berries, or dewberries, because their disease and insect 
troubles are largely controlled by cutting out diseased 
canes. For the control of anthracnose on raspberries, 
it is sometimes desirable to spray with Bordeaux mix- 
ture (5 lb. copper sulphate, 5 lb. lime, water slaked, 
50 gal. water), the first application being made when 
the young growth of canes is from 6 to 8 in. high, and 
the second and third applications being made at in- 
interval of about 2 wk. each. It is, however, often 
found that such spraying is not profitable. 

In case the brambles are attacked by the saw fly, 
sprayings with arsenate of lead (2 to 3 lb. arsenate of 
lead, 50 gal. water) or with Paris green (1 lb. Paris 
green, SO gal. water) should be given until the pest is 
under control. One thorough application of either of 
these poisons, especially of the first, will usually be 
sufficient. Care should be taken not to apply either of 
these poisons after the fruit has formed. 

In some sections of the country, at rare intervals, the 
canes in blackberry plantations will suddenly be found 
to be covered with dark-brown soft scales. These may 
be so abundant as almost to cover the entire canes. 
These insects suck the sap from the plants and greatly 
weaken them. In case of such an attack, all of the 
unnecessary wood should be pruned out and in the 
spring before growth begins a thorough spraying given 
with lime-sulphur solution (at sp. gr. 1.03— that is, con- 
centrated lime-sulphur solution of 33° Beaume diluted 



FRUIT CULTURE 149 

1 to 8 with water) or with a kerosene emulsion. In 
most cases, however, .it will be found necessary to 
abandon a blackberry plantation so attacked and to 
set out another on good, rich soil. 



CURRANTS 

VARIETIES OF CURRANTS 

Red Currants.— Of the fifty or more varieties of red 
currants the following are the more important com- 
mercially: 

Cherry: Bush, strong grower and productive in most 
places. Fruit, large to very large in long, well-filled 
bunches; deep red, acid, and medium in quality. Tips 
of branches sometimes go blind. Origin, Italy. Mid- 
season. 

Fay: Bush, medium, spreading grower; branches lop 
and fruit gets soiled; is slow in starting to bear in 
some localities, but is largely grown. Fruit, large to 
very large in well-filled bunches; red berries and of 
a milder acid flavor than Cherry. Mid-season. 

London Market: Bush, erect in growth and is less 
injured by diseases and borers than others. Fruit 
resembles Fay but is more acid. Mid-season. 

Prince Albert: Bush, upright grower, with strong 
canes; moderately productive. Fruit, medium in size in 
short bunches; pale scarlet; medium in quality. Very 
late. 

Red Cross: Bush, strong grower and productive. Fruit, 
large in short, compact bunches; red; excellent flavor. 
Origin, New York. Mid-season. 

Filler: Bush, productive. Fruit, red and of good 
quality. 

Pomona: Bush, rather spreading grower and pro- 
ductive. Fruit, bright red, of good quality, and con- 
tains few seeds. 

Red Dutch : Bush and fruit, small. Not recommended. 



150 FRUIT CULTURE 

Versailles : Bush, good grower and productive; a 
seedling of Cherry and something like it. Mid-season. 

Victoria: Bush, a good grower and little troubled 
by leaf diseases or borers; foliage very good, but 
susceptible to injury by hot weather; very productive. 
Fruit, small, red, acid, and of good flavor. Late mid- 
season. 

Wilder: Bush, strong, upright grower; productive. 
Fruit, large, hangs well; red, and of a good, mild flavor. 
Mid-season. 

Perfection: Bush, productive and foliage good. A 
good variety for table use when well grown. Fruit 
large, mild in flavor, and borne in long bunches. Origin, 
New York. 

Diploma: Bush, a strong grower. Fruit, large and 
of good quality. 

White Currants.— The following are the most commonly 
planted varieties of white currants: 

White Imperial: Best white currant. Bush, pro- 
ductive. Fruit, pale yellow, sweet, rich, and used for 
the table. 

White Grape: Bush, productive. Fruit, pale yellow, 
mild, and of good quality. 

Black Currants.— The following are the most com- 
monly planted varieties of black currants: 

Lcc's Prolific: An improvement on Black Naples, 
and similar to it. 

Black Naples: Bush, a strong grower. Fruit, large and 
borne in small bunches. 

Champion: Bush, a good grower. Fruit, large and of 
mild flavor. Mid-season. 

PRUNING OF CURRANTS 

Practically no pruning is needed at the time of plant- 
ing, although some growers prune the nursery plant 
to a single cane and head that cane back to five or six 
buds. In the commercial currant plantation, little 
pruning is given until the plants are 4 or 5 yr. old. 



FRUIT CULTURE 151 

The red and white currants and the black currants 
bear the largest proporton of their fruit on wood of 
different ages and therefore require different pruning. 
The red and white currants bear their fruit on wood 2 
or more yr. old, the most and best of it being on 
wood from 3 to 5 yr. old; hence a plentiful supply of 
wood of these ages should be left on the bushes. The 
black currant bears most of its fruit on wood that 
developed the previous summer; therefore black currant 
bushes should always have a sufficient supply of 1-yr.- 
old wood to bear a large crop of berries. At the be- 
ginning of the second year the bushes should be thinned 
out to five or six strong canes, or even less if a bush 
is not vigorous. Pruning during the succeeding years 
should be devoted to keeping about five or six strong, 
healthy canes in each bush, keeping the bush open 
enough so that sunlight will be admitted to all the 
fruit, and maintaining the proper proportion of fruit- 
bearing wood. 

Currants are sometimes pruned to grow in tree form, 
but such plants are of no commercial value, because 
the damage done by a single borer will ruin the bush. 

SPRAYING OF CURRANTS 

The currant is attacked by the San Jose scale, currant 
borer, currant worm, or currant saw fly, green leaf hop- 
per, or currant leaf hopper, yellow leaf currant bug, or 
four-lined leaf bug, grape flea beetle, currant plant 
louse, currant miner, and by the currant leaf spots. A 
number of the insects do but little damage. 

To control the above insects and diseases, the currant 
should be given the following spraying: (1) Before the 
buds open with a 1 to 9 lime-sulphur solution to control 
the San Jose scale (sp. gr. about 1.03— that is, 33° Baume 
lime-sulphur diluted 1 to 9 with water); (2) as soon as 
the plants have gone out of bloom, with 4 : 5 : 50 Bor- 
deaux mixture (4 lb. copper sulphate, 5 lb. lime, water 
slaked, 50 gal. water), and a 2 : 50 arsenate of lead 



152 FRUIT CULTURE 

(2 lb. arsenate of lead to 50 gal. Bordeaux mixture) 
combined to control the leaf spots and currant worm; 
when arsenate of lead is used in this spraying there is 
often no necessity for applying it again; (3) as soon 
as the fruit is harvested with the same spray as that 
given in (2), or without the arsenate of lead if the 
currant worm has been controlled by the previous 
spraying. 

In some cases an application of 4 : 5 : 50 Bordeaux 
mixture between the second and third regular sprayings 
is advisable to control the leaf spots, but this application 
should not be made so late that the spray will stain 
the fruit. No arsenate of lead should be applied within 
4 wk. of harvest. 



GOOSEBERRIES 

VARIETIES OF GOOSEBERRIES 

Gooseberries are of three general classes: American, 
European, and American-European hybrids. 

American GoosebexxiQS.—D ozvning : One of the best 
of the American class and most widely grown. Bush, 
strong grower, seldom troubled with mildew, and very 
productive. Fruit, large for its class, with a thin, 
smooth, pale green skin; pulp, soft, sweet, juicy, and 
of good quality. Mid-season. 

Houghton: Parent of Downing. Bush, vigorous and 
hardy, but somewhat drooping grower, and is productive. 
Although fruit is small and dark red in color, with a 
whitish bloom, flavor is very good. 

Pearl: Cross between Downing and Ashton's Seedling 
or Broom Girl, and closely resembles Downing. Bush, 
strong, fairly erect grower, seldom attacked by mildew, 
and productive. Fruit, medium, or about as large as 
Downing; pale green skin; pulp, juicy, and of good 
flavor. Mid-season. 

Red Jacket, or Josselyn: Cross between Houghton and 
Warrington Red. Bush, strong grower; does not mildew; 



FRUIT CULTURE 153 

productive. Fruit, good size; skin, reddish green to red 
and tender; pulp, rich, fragrant, and of good quality. 
Highly esteemed by some growers. Mid-season. 

Purple Red: Bush, strong grower and productive. 

European, or English, Gooseberries.— Among the 
European, or English, gooseberries, of which about a 
thousand are catalogued, the following appear to have 
been of some value in certain sections in the Northern 
States and Canada: 

Industry: One of the best. Bush, heavy cropper 
where it succeeds, but often suffers from mildew. 
Fruit, medium to large; skin, smooth or nearly so; dark 
red; pulp, very good in flavor; excellent for marketing 
in unripe condition. 

Crown Bob: Good variety for early market. Fruit 
resembles Industry in color but is smaller. 

Wellington Glory: Has proven productive in some parts 
of the country. Fruit, an attractive pale yellow. 

Warrington Red: Bush, strong grower; somewhat sub- 
ject to mildew. Fruit, pale red, hairy; pulp, sweet and 
of good quality. 

Whitesmith: Frequently recommended as a desirable 
variety, especially for the home garden. Fruit, medium 
to large; skin, smooth, and pale yellowish green; pulp, 
of good quality. 

American-European Hybrid Gooseberries.— Two of the 
American-European hybrids, which resemble the Euro- 
pean in type, are of value: 

Columbus: Bush, strong grower, and comparatively 
free from mildew. Fruit, white or greenish yellow, and 
of good quality. 

Chautauqua: Bush, vigorous, healthy grower. Fruit, 
large, smooth; pale green. 

PRUNING OF GOOSEBERRIES 

At the time of planting no pruning is needed except 
to take off injured roots or twigs, nor is any usually 
given for the first 2 or 3 years except to head in a 



154 FRUIT CULTURE 

branch that may be growing too rapidly. Gooseberries 
are trained to grow in two forms, the bush form and 
the tree form. The bush form is the only commercial 
form; four, five, or six canes are allowed to develop to 
make the bush in the same way as described for cur- 
rants. The gooseberry bush should not be pruned out 
too much, as such pruning may expose the fruit to too 
much sunlight. After three or four seasons of growth 
the new wood should be pruned back in the spring 
one-half of the growth made the previous summer, in 
order to prevent the formation of a large quantity of 
blind wood. Canes 4 to 6 yr. old should be removed. 
The best and the largest proportion of fruit is borne 
on wood 3 to 5 yr. old. 

SPRAYING OF GOOSEBERRIES 

Gooseberries are subject to the same insects and dis- 
eases already mentioned for currants, with the addition 
of the gooseberry mildew, which is a serious problem 
with European varieties. To avoid this mildew as 
much as possible, gooseberries should be planted on an 
elevation where they will have a good circulation of 
air about them, and should be pruned and cultivated 
so as to allow the air to circulate as freely as possible. 

The first two sprayings for the gooseberry should be 
the same as those for the currant. Then, as soon as 
the fruit is set the plants should be thoroughly sprayed 
with a 1 to 35 lime-sulphur solution (sp. gr. 1.008, that 
is concentrated lime-sulphur solution of 33° Baume di- 
luted 1 to 35 with water), or a solution of 1 oz. 
of potassium sulphide in 2 gal. of water, making 
sure that both the upper and under surfaces of the 
foliage are well covered. These sprayings should be 
repeated at intervals of 10 da. until the fruit is 
harvested. Even in spite of all that can be done, how- 
ever, the mildew will sometimes destroy the crop. 
After the fruit is harvested the bushes should be 
sprayed as described under (3) for currants. 



VEGETABLE CULTURE 155 



VEGETABLE CULTURE 



ESSENTIALS OF VEGETABLE CULTURE 

MARKET GARDENING 

Location for Market Gardening.— Before locating a 
market garden in a particular locality, the vegetable 
grower should give careful consideration to all con- 
ditions existing in the region. Some of the conditions 
may be improved; others are fixed. The points of 
greatest importance to consider in choosing a location 
are: the kind of market that is available, the distance 
from market, the nature of the roads to market, the 
labor supply, the stable-manure supply, the climate^ 
the seasons, and the social conditions. 

Site for Market Gardening.— The choosing of the site 
that is to be used as a market garden is of prime im- 
portance. The factors that influence the desirability of 
a site are: the kind of soil, the drainage of the soil, 
the water supply, the exposure of the land, and the 
previous treatment that has been given to the soil. 

Unless certain special crops are grown, the kind of 
soil best suited for a market garden is one of light to 
medium loam. A soil of this nature is easy to work, 
it does not retain water to a degree to make it sticky, 
and it can be worked early in the spring or soon after 
a rain. Owing to the fact that much hand working of 
the soil is necessary in gardening, it is advantageous to 
have a soil free from stones. To have a soil rich in 
vegetable matter and plant-food is also desirable, 
although if necessary, this can be supplied in manures. 
Other soils than light to medium loams can be used for 
vegetable growing, of course, but they are not so 



156 VEGETABLE CULTURE 

suitable because they do not have the properties just 
mentioned. 

Soil in which surplus water stands at or within 1^ 
ft. of the surface is of little use for the production of 
vegetable crops until the surplus water has been re- 
moved. However, soils that need draining are often 
very rich in plant-food; all they require to make them 
productive is the removal of the surplus water. 

In the selection of a site for a market garden the 
availability of a water supply for the house and barn, 
and the shed where the vegetables are washed, and for 
irrigation purposes, is an important factor, as mar- 
ket gardening cannot be conducted without an adequate 
supply of water. 

The ideal exposure for a market garden in the North 
Temperate zone is one with a slight slope to the south- 
east and with a protection on the northwest from the 
full sweep of the winds from that direction. The next 
best exposure is a level one. Level land is very desir- 
able for market gardens provided it is well drained. 
One trouble with level lands, however, is that they are 
often exposed to winds that may at certain seasons do 
considerable damage. 

The treatment soil has received before being con- 
verted into a market garden needs but little attention. 
If a soil is of the right type it can be made suitable 
for a garden by the addition of vegetable matter and 
other plant-food and by working it with proper garden 
tools and implements. A soil that has been made fertile 
by previous treatment is, of course, a valuable asset to a 
market garden, but, as just stated, it is not a requisite. 

In selecting a site, the local seasonal differences 
•should be studied. For instance, if a market gardener 
has decided on a region in which to locate, he should 
.ascertain before choosing a site, whether or not there 
are frost belts in the region. 

Equipment for Market Gardening.— Equipment for 
market gardening includes capital to run the business, 



VEGETABLE CULTURE 157 

land used for gardening and as a site for the buildings, 
the buildings themselves, a water-supply system, live- 
stock, barn equipment, tools, machinery, glass for hot 
beds and cold frames, seeds, plants, stable manure, 
commercial fertilizer, and labor. The equipment may be 
either comparatively simple or very extensive, depend- 
ing on the size of the business, the capital of the 
gardener, the nature of the soil, the kind of crops to be 
grown, the cost of labor, and the ideas of the grower. 
Following is given an approximate list of items needed 
on a ten-acre market garden that requires fixed and 
working capital, and the cost of each item. It may be 
possible, of course, under local conditions, to dispense 
with some of these items, and the prices given may 
vary in different localities. The items and figures given 
are taken from the books of a market gardener in the 
northern part of the United States. 

Items Requiring Fixed Capital 

Land (10 acres at $100 per acre) $1,000.00 

Buildings : 

House 1,000.00 

Barn 600.00 

Combination packing shed, tool room, and im- 
plement shed 500.00 

Water-supply system, including 3^ H. P. gaso- 
line engine and duplex pump 400.C0 

Livestock : 

1 team of work horses weighing about 2,600 lb.. 400.00 

1 express horse weighing about 1,200 lb 200.00 

1 cow 75.00 

Barn equipment : 

1 two-horse manure wagon 200.00 

1 one-horse market wagon 175.00 

1 one-horse tip cart 50.00 

1 carriage 125.00 

1 second-hand express wagon 35.00 

1 heavy double harness 45.00 

1 medium express harness 40.00 

1 tip-cart harness 18.00 

1 driving harness 18.00 

3 collars 9.00 

2 heavy horse blankets 8.00 



158 VEGETABLE CULTURE 

1 medium- weight blanket 3.50 

3 stable blankets 4.50 

2 carriage robes 6.00 

2 sets of curry combs, brushes, etc 3.00 

Incidentals 5.00 

Tools and machhiery : 

1 two-horse plow 15.00 

1 one-horse plow 8.50 

1 double-action disk harrow 24.00 

1 smoothing harrow 15.00 

1 Meeker harrow 22.50 

1 five-tooth shovel cultivator 8.50 

1 twelve-tooth spike cultivator 8.50 

1 seed sower 9.00 

1 wheel hoe 5.00 

2 slide hoes 3.00 

5 common hoes 2.00 

3 manure forks 2.70 

3 fourteen-tooth iron garden rakes 1.80 

3 shovels 3.60 

2 spades 1.50 

1 hammer .60 

1 rip saw 1.25 

1 cross-cut saw 1.25 

1 plane 1.00 

1 level 75 

2 chisels 50 

1 bit stock and bits 2.00 

Miscellaneous tools 5,00 

Miscellaneous garden equipment: 

1 garden line and reel .- l.OO 

50 ft. of hose 4.00 

Small tools not listed 10.00 

25 hotbed sash at $4.25 each 106.25 

Lumber for frames 20.00 

Total $5,204.20 

Items Requiring Working Capital 

Seeds and plants $100.00 

Stable manure, 400 tons at $1 per ton 400.00 

Commercial fertilizer 200.00 

Labor : 

6 men at $1.50 per day, working 26 days per 
month for 8 months 1,248.00 

2 men at $25 per month for 12 months per year. . 600.00 

Total $2,548.00 



VEGETABLE CULTURE 159 

Total Capital Required 

Fixed capital required $5,204.20 

Working capital required 2,548.00 

$7,752.20 

Markets for Market-Garden Produce.— Markets for 

market-garden produce may be classified as four kinds: 
wholesale markets, wholesale-retail markets, retail mar- 
kets, and special markets. 

Wholesale markets are those where produce is bought in 
large quantities to be sold to dealers, who, in turn, sell 
it to consumers. The consumer, therefore, buys goods 
that have been handled by the grower, by transporta- 
tion agents (if the goods have been shipped), by the 
wholesale dealer, and by the merchant to whom the 
wholesaler sells. He pays, therefore, at least two profits 
other than that of the grower. 

Wholesale-retail markets are those where the produce is 
sold by the grower direct to the retailer and by the 
retailer to the consumer. To this class belong all mar- 
ket and grocery stores. The wholesale-retail market 
does not usually offer a very acceptable opportunity to 
the market gardener because of the accessibility of the 
wholesale market, in which sales can be generally made 
with less trouble than in the wholesale-retail market. 
In small cities where no wholesale market exists and 
in towns where there are a number of enterprising 
marketmen and hucksters, however, good wholesale- 
retail markets are often open to the market gardener. 
To supply such a market a large variety of produce 
should be grown. 

Retail markets are those where the producer sells direct 
to the consumer. Such trade is largely monopolized in 
the large cities and their suburbs by peddlers. In towns 
and villages the opportunity for such business is prob- 
ably greater than elsewhere. 

Special markets may be classified as two kinds: mar- 
kets developed by the ingenuity of the gardener, and 



160 VEGETABLE CULTURE 

markets for a special product. In the case of markets 
of the first kind a broad field is open to the grower, 
provided he is able to devise some successful scheme 
for packing and distributing his produce, either to the 
wholesale-retail market or to the consumer. In the 
case of markets of the second kind, the market may be 
a canning factory that uses large quantities of certain 
vegetables, or it may be a hotel that demands a high- 
grade product. Often private families are willing to 
pay a fancy price for some exceptionally desirable 
product, and thus a profitable special market can be 
developed. 

Range of Crops for Market Gardening.— The range of 
crops that may be grown by a market gardener is so 
great that usually the grower can find some crop 
especially suited to his soil, climate, or market. There 
are about forty vegetable crops that are commonly 
found in the markets of the United States, and it is 
possible to produce the greater number of these crops 
in most sections of the country. Of each of these 
different vegetables there are many varieties. In ad- 
dition to this wide range of vegetable crops there are a 
number of small fruit crops that fit in well with the 
cropping and the marketing of the market gardener. 

TRUCK FARMING 

Location for Truck Farms.— The factors influencing the 
location of a truck farm are similar to those influencing 
the location of a market garden, but are of a different 
relative importance. In the order of their importance 
they are: Transportation facilities, climate, soil, mar- 
keting organizations, labor, distance to shipping centers, 
roads to market, and social factors. 

Transportation Facilities for Truck Farming.— The 
truck farmer is absolutely dependent on public carriers 
for the transportation of his produce. These carriers are, 
as a rule, railroads and boats. Before locating a truck 
farm, consideration should be given to whether the 



VEGETABLE CULTURE 161 

service of such carriers as are available is adequate 
for the purpose. 

Climate for Truck Farming.— The great variations of 
climate in different sections of the United States have 
made truck farming possible. The range in climatic 
conditions along the Atlantic coast, for example, is such 
that a succession of tender crops grown in the field are 
available to the northern consumer from one year's 
end to the other. The climate influences the selection 
of crops, the time of year of shipment, and indirectly 
the cost of transportation to the markets where the 
produce will be sold. 

Soils for Truck Farming.— The ideal soil for truck 
farms is a sandy loam that is free from stones. Such 
soil should be well drained and in a high state of 
fertility. 

Marketing Organizations for Truck Farming.— When 
truck farms are located a long distance from market it 
is practically impossible for individual growers to 
market their crops satisfactorily. Such a condition 
compels the growers to organize associations and pro- 
vide sales departments to sell their produce. Such 
organizations have satisfactorily solved the marketing 
problem for truck farmers. These associations are found 
in localities where a number of growers can conveniently 
act together. To locate where affiliation with such an 
organization is impossible would be unwise for the 
truck farmer at a considerable distance from market. 

Labor for Truck Farming.— The labor problem of truck 
farmers is not usually so difficult to solve as that of 
market gardeners, on account of the slack demand for 
labor in remote regions as compared to that near large 
cities. However, the cost of labor for the truck farm, 
is comparatively large. An investigation of labor con- 
ditions should precede the selection of a location for the 
business. 

Distance to Shipping Centers.— The extreme distance 
from a shipping center to the truck farm should not be 
11 



162 VEGETABLE CULTURE 

more than 10 miles, and each mile nearer than this 
distance deducts the annual constant expense to a large 
degree. 

Roads to Shipping Centers.— The same problems in re- 
gard to roads confronts both the truck farmer and 
the market gardener. Locations admirably suited by 
natural conditions for the business of truck farming 
may be rendered entirely unsuitable by impassable 
roads. 

Social Conditions. — The truck farmer is usually in a 
sparsely settled region, and for this reason his social 
problems are more difificult of satisfactory solution than 
are those of the market gardener located in more 
thickly settled communities. For this reason, a pros- 
pective truck farmer should study thoroughly all con- 
ditions pertaining to the social life and customs of a 
locality before establishing a business. 

Equipment for Truck Farming.— The size of a truck 
farm varies between wide limits. Some truck farms 
have from 4 to 5 acres of ground; others often have as 
many as 600 to 800 acres under cultivation. This vari- 
ation in size is due largely to the type of crops grown, 
the ideas of the farmer, the length of time he has spent 
in the business, the success he has attained, and the 
amount of capital invested. 

The capital necessary to go into truck farming is 
small, but the amount that may be invested is almost 
unlimited. A lesser investment in land, glass, build- 
ings, and labor, makes the amount needed by the truck 
farmer less than that required by the market gardener. 
The cost of selling produce is also less because of the 
opportunity to sell through organizations. To start a 
small truck farm $1,000 would be sufficient. Some per- 
sons could start on less and succeed and others would 
need more. 

Markets for Truck-Farm Produce.— It is typical of 
the truck farmer to sell his produce in distant markets, 
through a selling organization. Occasionally a truck 



VEGETABLE CULTURE 163 

farmer operating a large farm is found who handles 
his own products, the bulk of his business enabling 
him to do this to advantage. It is also typical of the 
truck farmer to produce large quantities of single 
crops. Such crops are marketed in carload lots to 
wholesale distributors. 

The marketing organization of the truck farm bears 
much the same relation to the grower as the commission 
house of the large city bears to the market gardener. 
There is, however, one distinct difference; as the mar- 
keting organizations exist to provide a market for truck 
farmers' products, they are controlled by the grower, 
while the commission man of the city is in business 
to amass wealth for himself. The truck farmer gets 
much more satisfaction from his method of marketing 
than does the average market gardener who depends 
on commission merchants to handle his crops. On the 
other hand, it is necessary for the truck farmer to 
market his produce through his association or not at 
all, while to the market gardener a number of ways of 
distribution are opened. 

Truck-Farm Crops.— The crops of the truck farm are 
practically identical with those of the market garden, 
different crops being grown in different sections of the 
country. The development of methods of distribution 
and of packing have made possible the shipment of 
verry perishable products for a long distance and have 
thus increased the range of crops that may be pro- 
duced on sections far distant from market. 

There are a number of distinct trucking sections 
along the Atlantic coast of the United States. The 
largest of these centers is at Norfolk, Va. The prin- 
cipal crops of this section in the order of their im- 
portance are: Irish potatoes, spinach, cabbage, kale, 
sweet potatoes, strawberries, radishes, peas, lettuce, 
cucumbers, cantaloups, egg plants, tomatoes, asparagus, 
beans, and beets. In the trucking centers of Texas, 
onions are the principal crop. Florida excels in the 



164 VEGETABLE CULTURE 

production of lettuce, cucumbers, celery, and tomatoes. 
Colorado is foremost in the production of cantaloups. 
Georgia leads in growing watermelons. Other sections, 
of course, produce the crops to which they are adapted. 

HOME GARDENING 

Site for Home Garden. — In selecting a site for a home 
garden the following factors need careful attention: 
(1) Convenience of access from the house; (2) extent of 
land available; (3) richness of the soil; (4) ease of 
working the plot; and (5) appearance of the garden. 

A home garden not convenient of access to the house- 
keeper loses a large part of its value. The garden 
should be located so that when vegetables are wanted 
they can be quickly obtained, fresh from the soil. 

The fact that a home garden must be located largely 
according to the land available often makes accessibility 
to the house out of the question. Nevertheless, it does 
not lose its importance on this account. 

Size of Home Garden.— The extent of land needed for 
the home garden depends on the size of the family to 
be fed, and the amount of time and money that can 
be spent on the garden. A home garden 20 ft. long by 
10 ft. wide can be made to produce a good supply of 
some of the smaller vegetable crops, such as lettuce, 
radishes, spinach, beets, carrots, turnips, and perhaps 
a few potatoes and tomatoes. 

An area 50 ft. x 100 ft. will yield sufficient produce 
for a large family for both the summer and winter 
supply. In a home garden the plants can be grown 
close together and more than one crop can be taken 
from the same land the same season. 

Soil for Home Garden.— The home garden, especially 
if it is in a city or town, must often be located with 
little opportunity for selection according to soil charac- 
teristics. The soil should preferably be sandy. Other 
types of soil can be made to produce crops, but always 
with more labor and expense. 



VEGETABLE CULTURE 165 

Soil Improvement for Home Garden.— Soil improvement 
for a home garden should consist of the addition of as 
much stable manure as can be obtained conveniently. A 
quantity that covers the soil to the depth of from 3 to 
8 in. is desirable, provided it is later worked into the 
soil. The plowing under of grass sod and the addition 
of all vegetable matter available, such as clipped lawn 
grass, garbage, etc., help to increase the capacity of 
the soil for crop production. The addition of wood 
ashes is also helpful. Except in limestone regions, 
the use of about 50 lb. of lime to every 100 sq. ft. of 
soil is good practice. Lime and manure should not, 
however, be added at the same time. If good tillage 
is coupled with the addition of the fertilizing material 
and lime, satisfactory crops can be produced from prac- 
tically any type of soil. Drainage, if necessary, should 
be provided in a home garden. 

Selection of Crops for Home Garden.— The selection of 
crops for the home garden is distinctly a family problem. 
The home gardener is practically unlimited in his choice 
of garden crops, and the greater the variety, within 
reasonable limits, the greater the interest in the garden, 
and the more benefits received from it. 

The majority of garden crops are easily grown from 
seed, and the cost of seeds of the best kind and from 
the most reliable sources is very small. Plants of those 
crops that must be started in hotbeds or cold frames 
can usually be purchased ready for transplanting from 
dealers in towns and cities. The cost of such plants, 
too, is usually not high. 

Glass for Home Garden.— Home gardening for the city 
and town worker is made much more interesting by the 
use of a few sash for the production of plants out of 
season. From 1 to 5 sash is the usual number in use 
on a home garden, depending on the amount of money 
it is desired to spend, the room available, and the time 
allowable for the work. The type of glass structure 
most used by home gardeners is the cold frame. 



166 VEGETABLE CULTURE 

Arrangement of Home Garden.— A rectangular shape 
is the most desirable for the home garden, as the plan 
of cropping may then be such as to make necessary 
the least possible labor in the care of the garden. The 
gardener can, in addition, economize on space in a 
rectangular plot. 

Every home garden, if of sufficient size, should have 
the following perennial crops: Asparagus, rhubarb, 
raspberries, blackberries, gooseberries, and currants. 
These should be located on one side of the garden 
where they will not interfere with the annual plowing 
and harrowing for other crops. A border of perennial 
crops makes a most desirable arrangement. In addition 
to the perennial crops, the following are desirable: 
Strawberries, lettuce, beets, carrots, cabbage, cauliflower, 
cucumbers, spinach, radishes, sweet corn, string beans, 
and tomatoes. 

To be most successful with the garden a plan should 
be made before the gardening season opens. In making 
a plan the gardener should arrange the crops according 
to their planting time and degree of hardiness. The 
length of time usually needed from seed to maturity 
should also be considered, as it is often desirable to 
plant crops on ground that has already produced a crop 
earlier in the season. 

General Rules for a Home Garden.— Some general rules 
in regard to cropping a home garden are given following: 
(1) Group the perennials; (2) plant the hardy crops to- 
gether, so that no more land than is necessary need 
be cared for early in the season; (3) group the small 
crops and the large crops that need similar tillage; 
(4) as soon as one crop has been harvested, follow it 
by another; (5) interplant some of the slow-growing 
large crops with quick-growing small crops. 

Tillage of a Home Garden. — The soil of a home garden 
should be plowed after the manure has been applied. 
The plowing then mixes the manure with the soil and 
upturns the soil particles to the air, thus making the 



VEGETABLE CULTURE 167 

soil fine in texture. Spading the ground will ac- 
complish the same result as plowing, but it is more 
expensive and tiresome. 

After the soil has been plowed a harrow should be 
used to make a finely pulverized seed-bed. On small 
areas a hand garden rake can be used in place of a 
harrow. 

After the plants in the garden have commenced to 
grow, tillage between the rows is necessary. Thorough 
working of the soil should be done to keep the ground 
stirred to a depth of 1 or 2 in. during the whole 
growing season. This stirring of the soil conserves soil 
moisture and keeps the garden free from weeds, both of 
which are essential in gardening. 

Planting and Harvesting of Home-Garden Crops.— The 
planting of the seeds, the setting out of the plants, and 
the harvesting of the crops take place in different parts 
of the garden throughout the entire season. There is no 
general planting and harvesting time for home-garden 
crops, as in most branches of agriculture. 

Tools for a Home Garden.— For the average home gar- 
den the following implements and tools will be found 
useful. The average cost of the equipment is also given. 

1 seed sower and wheel cultivator combined. $9.00 

1 common hoe 40 

1 fourteen-tooth iron garden rake 50 

1 spading fork 70 

M shovel 1.00 

1 garden hose and reel 1.00 

1 wheelbarrow 4.50 

Total $17.10 

For the man who plants an area of say 10 ft. x 20 ft., 
such an equipment is not necessary. The hoe, rake, 
and spading fork are all the tools that he need have. 



168 VEGETABLE CULTURE 

VEGETABLE CROPS 

Vegetable plants are of three degrees of hardiness: 
Hardy, half hardy, and tender. Hardy plants are those 
that can withstand frost without injury. Half-hardy 
plants are those that will grow in the cool moist season 
of the year, but will not withstand frost without injury. 
Tender plants are those that are killed by frost; they 
should not, therefore, be put in the ground until the 
season is far enough advanced that no long period of 
cool weather is likely to occur. 

Following is given a list of the common vegetable 
crops classed as hardy, half hardy, and tender: 

Hardy crops: Rhubarb, beets, cabbage, carrots, cauli- 
flower, celery, lettuce, onions, peas, parsnips, radishes, 
turnips. 

Half-hardy crops: Asparagus, beans (some varieties), 
sweet corn (some varieties). 

Tender crops: Beans, sweet corn, cucumbers, potatoes, 
squashes, tomatoes. 

HARDY VEGETABLE CROPS 
Rhubarb. — The ideal soil for rhubarb is a deep, rich, 
sandy loam, but the plant can be grown successfully 
on all types of soil, provided they are put in proper 
condition. Rhubarb requires an enormous quantity of 
soil moisture, consequently irrigation is especially 
valuable. 

Propagation of rhubarb is usually accomplished by 
root division. A piece of root that has a strong eye 
will, under favorable conditions, produce a good plant 
in one season. The best time to plant rhubarb is in 
the early spring. The roots are usually planted 
3 ft. X 4 ft. or 4 ft. X 4 ft., being covered with several 
inches of soil. Linnaeus and Victoria are the most 
popular varieties. 

Beets. — Beets thrive best on sandy loams that are 
deep and moist, but well drained. They will, however, 



VEGETABLE CULTURE 169 

grow in practically all American gardens. When grown 
in heavy soils they are likely to be too fibrous. 

Beets are propagated from seed. The early varieties 
are sown as early in spring as the ground can be pre- 
pared. From about 6 to 8 weeks are required for the 
roots to reach a size sufficient for use. Succession 
plantings of oval and turnip-shaped beets may be made 
until the middle of August. In planting beets, the 
distance between plants in the row should be from 
2 in. to 3 in. for small-topped varieties, and from 5 in. to 
5 in. for the larger-rooted varieties. These distances 
are secured by thinning. If cultivating is to be done 
with a hand-wheel hoe, the rows should be about 12 in. 
apart; if cultivating is to be done with a horse cul- 
tivator, the distance between rows should be from 
24 in. to 30 in. 

Cabbage. — Cabbage will do well on any soil that is 
constantly moist, yet well drained, and that has abun- 
dant plant-food. Perhaps the largest crops of late 
cabbage have been grown on clay loams that have been 
well manured. The best climate for cabbage is one that 
is cool and moist, consequently the growing of cabbage 
is largely confined to northern districts. 

For early cabbage, fall plowing is generally desirable; 
for late cabbage, it is the practice to break the ground 
early in the spring. When early cabbage is to be raised, 
it is now almost a universal practice in the North to 
so^ the seed in hotbeds or greenhouses in Jan. or Feb. 
Late cabbage seed is sowed in the open sometime during 
May in northern latitudes. When the plants have 
reached a suitable size they are transplanted into rows. 
The proper distance to set the plants depends on the 
methods of cultivating, spraying, and harvesting. Early 
varieties, such as Jersey Wakefield, may be planted 
14 in. X 26 in. or even closer; Charlestown Wakefield, 
16 in. X 28 in.; Danish Ball Head, 18 in. x 30 in.; 
and Flat Dutch and the other late flat-headed varieties, 
24 in. X 36 in. 



170 VEGETABLE CULTURE 

Carrots. — The soil for carrots should be fine, mellow, 
fertile, moist, and not inclined to bake. The best roots 
are grown in distinctly sandy soils. 

The carrot is propagated from seed sown in the open. 
If an early crop is desired, the seed should be sown as 
early in the spring as the ground can be prepared. A 
succession of roots is secured by planting at various 
times throughout the season. The early varieties mature 
in from 8 to 10 wk. and late varieties in from 4 to 5 mo. 

Carrot seeds germinate slowly, consequently it is an 
advantage to sow enough radish seed with the carrot 
seed to mark the rows, so that cultivation may not be 
interfered with. The seed should be covered, as a rule, 
with about ^ in. of soil. 

For the small early varieties, 10 in. to 12 in. between 
rows is sufficient space if a hand-wheel hoe is used. 
For later varieties, 15 in. between rows is about right. 
When a horse cultivator is to be used, all varieties 
should be planted in rows from 24 in. to 30 in. apart. 
Various spaces are recommended for the distance be- 
tween plants in the row, from 4 in. to 5 in. being the 
usual space allowed. Thinning, of course, is necessary 
to space the plants properly. 

Cauliflower.— Cauliflower thrives best in rich, heavy, 
loams, although large crops are obtained when the 
crop is grown in light soils. A constant supply of 
moisture is the most important factor. 

Cauliflower, both late and early, is grown by prac- 
tically the same methods as late and early cabbage. 
As cauliflower plants are more tender than cabbage 
plants, it is customary, however, to sow the former 
somewhat later than the latter. Mar. 1 being about 
right for northern districts. The planting distances are 
the same as for cabbage. 

Celery.— Muck soils are specially adopted to celery 
growing, because they are very moist, fertile, loose, and 
mellow. It is a fact, however, that the flavor of celery 
is somewhat deficient when the crop is grown on muck 



VEGETABLE CULTURE 171 

soil. Many clay and silt soils produce good crops, 
especially when well manured and irrigated. Large 
quantities of celery are also raised on light sandy 
loams, but it is usually necessary to use considerable 
commercial fertilizer. 

Celery seeds are very small and slow to germinate 
and must be provided with the best conditions in the 
seed-bed. The soil should be in fine condition and 
moist. It is seldom best to sow seed for the early crop 
before Mar. 1. In most Northern districts, the seed 
may be sown in flats, hotbeds, or greenhouses. When 
the rough leaves appear, the small seedlings are trans- 
planted into flats or beds; 1^ in. each way is ample 
space. Seed for the late crop is usually sown in the 
open or in protected beds as early in the spring as 
the ground can be prepared. The rows are generally 
1 ft. apart. This provides plenty of space for wheel-hoe 
cultivation until the plants are transplanted. 

In most sections, planting for the early crop should 
not occur until from May 10 to 15. Vigorous plants, 
properly set at this time, should produce a marketable 
crop by Aug. 1. The late plants may be set the latter 
part of June and throughout the month of July. 
Planting distances are extremely variable. If planting 
is to be in blanching trenches, the distance between 
rows must not be less than 3J/2 ft. ; 5 ft. is the more 
coi,nmon spacing, especially for the tall, green varieties. 
\Mien boards or other devices are used for blanching, 
the space between rows varies from 18 in. to 3 ft. The 
standard distance between the plants in the row is 6 in. 
Some of the best growers plant the early varieties 
only 4 in. apart and allow 24 in. between rows. At this 
distance, 65,000 plants are required for an acre. 

Lettuce. — Rich, sandy soils, properly fertilized, are 
preferable for growing early crops of lettuce. For all 
classes of lettuce, however, sandy loams furnish the best 
conditions. The soil preparation for lettuce should be 
thorough. The seed is sown in the open from early spring 



172 VEGETABLE CULTURE 

until late fall, and all winter in the far South. It is cus- 
tomary to drill lettuce in rows about 1 ft. apart, and to 
thin to 1 ft. or less. In home gardens, the plants are often 
thinned out at first to about 4 in. and later to 1 ft. 

Onions.— Perhaps the best soils for onions are those 
containing large quantities of organic matter. Such 
soils as muck and peat seem to be an ideal medium for 
the growing of this crop, as they warm up rapidly in the 
spring, and thus facilitate early planting, which is very 
important. Such soils also retain moisture, so that 
drouth seldom injures the crop to any great extent. 
Land used in growing onions should be practically level 
to prevent damage from washing. Onions are easily 
washed out on sloping lands. 

Most of the onions grown in the United States are 
produced from seed sown in the open, where the crop 
matures. When wheel hoes are used, it is customary 
to plant the crop 12 in. to 14 in. between rows. When 
horse tools are used the rows are made from 24 in. to 
30 in. apart. In fairly heavy soil, the seed should be 
covered with not more than 1/2 in. of soil. In very sandy 
soil, it is advisable to cover the seed a little deeper. 
It is customary to allow 8 to 12 plants to the lineal 
foot. The proper distance in a row is secured, of 
course, by thinning. 

Peas. — A cool, moist, but well-drained soil is essential 
to the largest yields of peas. Sandy loams are preferred, 
although good results can be obtained on any loose, 
friable, and well-prepared soil. 

For the earliest crop, the seed should be planted in 
Mar., or as soon as the ground can be prepared. For 
the first planting, a shallow covering of about 1 in. of 
soil should be given to the seed. As the season ad- 
vances, the planting should be deeper. Planting dis- 
tances depend on the height of the vines, whether the 
vines are to be supported or not, and the purpose of the 
crop. When sown in drills, the space between rows 
varies from 18 in. to 3 ft. 



VEGETABLE CULTURE 173 

Parsnips.— Parsnips do best in deep, fertile, sandy- 
loams. Clay soil has a tendency to produce crooked 
and branching roots. 

Parsnip seeds germinate very slowly, consequently 
they should be sown as early as possible in the spring. 
A few radish seeds should be sown with the parsnips 
to mark the rows so that cultivation may be begun 
before the parsnips are up. The soil should be thor- 
oughly prepared before sowing. From ^S in. to 1 in. of 
soil is suilicient covering. It is customary to use plenty 
of seed, and then thin the plants to 6 in. or 7 in. in 
strong soils, or 4 in. to 5 in. in poorer ones. There 
should be 15 in. to 18 in. between rows for wheel-hoe 
cultivation, and 2 ft. or more when horse implements 
are to be used. 

Radishes.— The soil for radishes should be cool, moist, 
fertile, and friable. Sandy loams are preferable. In 
heavy soils, the roots are likely to be rough or ill 
shaped, with a large number of tibrous laterals. 

Radishes are planted from early spring, as soon as the 
ground can be worked, until 6 wk. before frosting 
weather. By the selection of different varieties, and 
sowing at frequent intervals, a constant succession of 
radishes may be had throughout the season. The seeds 
are strong in germination, and should be sown thinly. 
The distance between plants in the row should vary 
from 1 in. to 5 in., depending on the size of roots and 
tops. As a rule, rows are about 1 ft. apart. 

Spinach.— For spinach a very rich, moist soil is re- 
quired. In soils of moderate fertility, the plants become 
spindling, and the production is light. The general 
practice is to make early sowings in low beds from 5 
to 9 ft. wide. The rows, which should be 10 or 14 in. 
apart, are drilled lengthwise in the beds and the plants 
thinned to from 4 to 6 in. apart. It is important to 
sow in good time, so that the plants will become 
thoroughly established before winter. Sept. 25 is the 
favorite time for sowing in the latitude of Norfolk, Va. 



174 VEGETABLE CULTURE 

Turnips.— Turnips, like other root crops, are best 
grown in sandy soils, and although the crop is produced 
in a wide range of soil types, to obtain large yields and 
high quality, the soil must be fertile and constantly 
moist. 

For an early crop, the seed should be sown as soon as 
the ground can be prepared. For a late crop, the seed 
should be sown the latter part of July, or early in Aug., 
depending on the locality. If a wheel hoe is to be used 
in cultivating, the rows should be from 12 to 18 in. 
apart, and if a horse cultivator is to be employed, the 
rows should be from 26 to 30 in. apart. In the case 
of the early crop, the plants should be about 2^/^ to 3 in. 
apart in the row. For the larger late varieties, 4 or 5 in. 
between plants in a row is about right. The seed 
should be planted from ^ to )4 in. deep. 

HALF-HARDY CROPS 

Asparagus.—Asparagus is grown successfully on a 
great variety of soils. The best soil is a deep, rich, 
moist, sandy loam. Sandy loams are especially im- 
portant for the green or blanched asparagus, because it 
is very difficult to produce straight shoots in heavy clay 
soils. 

Asparagus is propagated by seed and by dividing the 
crowns. The latter method, however, is not satisfactory 
and is seldom practiced by commercial growers. Owing 
to the fact that the asparagus plantation is to last 10 
years or longer, too much thought or care cannot be 
given to the preparation of the soil. Planting distances 
vary considerably in different sections. In the growing 
of white stalks, the average spacing in New Jersey is 
2 ft. X 5^ ft.; in New York, about 2 ft. x 5 ft.; in 
California, about 2 ft. x 9 ft. In the growing of green 
asparagus, the average spacing in New Jersey is 2 ft. x 
5 ft.; in Massachusetts, 2 ft. x 4 ft.; in Pennsylvania, 
2 ft. X AYz ft. Spring planting is universally regarded 
as better than fall planting. In America, the asparagus 



VEGETABLE CULTURE 175 

plants are set from 6 in. to 1 ft. deep, but 8 in. is 
considered deep enough. An ordinary moldboard plow 
is used to make the trenches for planting. The furrow 
soil is thrown on each side of the furrow. It is often 
necessary to make two or three rows before the proper 
depth has been obtained. It is not best to set the 
plants in the bottom of a hard trench. The best prac- 
tice is to spread the roots over a slight mound of fine 
soil and then cover the crown with 2 or 3 in. of fine, 
moist soil. The crown should be fully firmed over the 
fleshy roots. 

Beans.— Beans are discussed here as a half-hardy 
crop, but in reality only certain varieties are half hardy, 
the others being tender varieties. 

The soils for beans should be well drained and have 
a moderate quantity of organic matter. Some varieties 
of beans will grow and mature light crops on poor 
soils, but high fertility is necessary to larger yields. 
The light sandy loams are especially important for lima 
beans. 

It is better to wait until the ground is thoroughly 
warm and there is little danger of damaging weather 
conditions before planting beans. Kidney beans may 
be planted early, followed by the marrows, and then 
the pea varieties. In New York, the kidney beans may 
be planted the latter part of May, and the pea varieties 
from^ June 5 to 20. The distances between rows range 
from 24 in. to 34 in., 28 in. being abovit the proper 
spacing. The usual distance of the beans apart in a 
row is from 2 to 4 in. In heavy soils, lyi in. is ample 
depth for planting; in lighter soils, 2 in. to 3 in. is 
about right. 

Sweet Corn. — Sod land is invariably the best for sweet 
corn. The crop may be grown successfully on prac- 
tically all types of soils, but large yields are to be 
obtained, of course, only from very fertile soils. As 
in the case of beans, some varieties of sweet corn are 
half hardy and some are tender. 



176 VEGETABLE CULTURE 

When grown for market, early planting of sweet corn 
is especially important. The crop is often grown in 
hills, but drills are preferred. Plants of a lighter 
growing variety, may stand 10 in. apart, and 1 ft. is 
not too much space for vigorous varieties. The space 
between rows varies from 30 in. to 4 ft. It is best to 
seed freely and then if necessary to reduce the number 
of plants. 

TENDER CROPS 

Cucumbers. — Light, sandy loams are best for early 
cucumbers, if earliness is the chief consideration, but 
yields are larger and the bearing period longer in 
heavier soils. Whatever the type of soil, it must be 
moist but not wet. 

Planting should not occur until the ground is warm 
and there is practically no danger of frost. Many 
growers plant seed at two different depths. The early 
plants come on first, and if these are killed or damaged 
by frost, the later ones will be likely to escape. Plant- 
ing in hills was the universal practice some years ago 
and is still preferred by many growers. In good soils, 
the distance between hills should be not less than 
5 ft. X 5 ft. and some prefer to plant 6 ft. x 6 ft. In 
lighter and moderately fertile soils, 4 ft. X 5 ft. may be 
permissible. 

Potatoes.— Soil for potatoes should be rather loamy in 
character and should have a liberal supply of potash, 
either naturally or supplied in the drill by the applica- 
tion of sulphate of potash. 

Potatoes are cut into sections for planting, a section 
being a small piece containing one or more eyes. The 
pieces are planted 3 or 4 in. below the surface of the 
ground. It is the best practice to plant in drills, drop- 
ping two pieces every 12 to 18 in. If horse cultivation is 
used, the drills should be at least 3 ft. apart. 

Squashes. — A rich, warm, but well-drained, moist soil 
is essential to quick maturity and high yields in 
squashes. The plants are often started under glass. 



VEGETABLE CULTURE 111 

like cucumbers and muskmelons, and planted in the 
open. It is customary to sow from 10 to 12 seeds in 
hills enriched with two or three forkfuls of rotten 
manure, and then to thin to two or three plants. 
Squashes are often planted in drills and thinned as 
may be desired. The dish types of pattypan and crook- 
neck squashes are generally planted 4 ft. x 4 ft. apart. 
The winter, or running varieties, should be planted 
about 8 ft. X 8 ft., or 10 ft. x 12 ft., depending on 
the fertility of the soil and the vigor of the varieties. 

Tomatoes.— A deep, fertile, sandy loam, or a well- 
drained clay sod soil undoubtedly provides the best 
conditions for the culture of tomatoes. The crop, how- 
ever, is grown successfully on a great variety of 
soils. The tomato is propagated from seed sown in 
hotbeds, cold frames, or greenhouses. When the seed- 
lings have attained sufficient size, they are transplanted 
to the open ground. The proper distances should be 
determined by the fertility of the soil, the vigor of 
the variety, and the method of culture. In fine soils, 
and with early varieties, 3 ft. x 3 ft. apart will be 
satisfactory. In many soils, 3 ft. x 4 ft. are good 
distances for early varieties; 4 ft. x 4 ft., and 4 ft. x 5 ft. 
are good planting distances for late varieties. 



12 



178 FARM LIVESTOCK 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



HORSES 

For a proper understanding of the terms used by 
horsemen, a knowledge of the various parts and exterior 
regions of a horse is necessary. In the accompanying 
illustration is shown a profile view of a horse with the 
parts and exterior regions numbered. The names of 
the numbered parts and regions are given following 
the cut. 

The common unit of measurement for the height of 
horses is the hand. A hand is 4 in. or the supposed 
width of the human palm. Thus, if a horse were 5 ft. 
4 in. tall, its height would be expressed as 16 hands; 
if it were 5 ft. 6 in. tall, its height would be expressed 
as 16^ hands. The measurement of a horse's height is 
taken from the ground to the top of the shoulders. 



THE ARAB HORSE 

The native home of the Arab breed of horse is in 
Arabia, but it is probable that the breed is not indig- 
enous to that country. Arab horses range from 14 to 
15 hands in height, rarely exceeding 15J4 hands. The 
head is of splendid appearance, being broad and high, 
the muzzle short and fine, the face bony, the veins 
handsomely coursed, the nostrils large, the ears small 
and well set, the eyes large and prominent, and the 
jaw heavy and wide, giving an abundance of room for 
the windpipe. The neck is deep where it joins the 
shoulder, of good length, and nicely turned in the 
throatlatch. The shoulders are long and obliquely set, 
but the withers are often too thick and are inclined to 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



179 




/, Chin groove 


18, Shoulder 


55, Loin 


2, Lips 


19, Arm 


36, Hip 


3, Nostril 


W, Point of shoul- 


37, Croup 


4, Muzzle 


der 


38, Dock 


6, Face 


21, Forearm 


S5, Tail 


6, Nose 


22, Elbow 


40, Point of but- 


7, Eye 


23, Knee 


tock 


8, Forehead 


24, Front cannon 


41, Thigh 

42, Stifle 


9. Poll 


:25, Front fetlock 


10, Ear 


26, Front pastern 


43, Quarters 


11, Lower jaw 


:27, Front coronet 


44, Gaskin 


12, Angle of lower jaw 


28, Front hoof 


45. Hock 


13, Throat latch 


29, Chestnuts 


4^, Hind cannon 


i4. Neck 


30, Floor of chest 


47. Hind fetlock 


15, Crest 


31, Belly 


48, Hind pastern 


le. Juncture of neck 


S^. Ribs 


49, Hind coronet 


and shoulder 


33, Flank 


60. Hind hoof 


17, Withers 


S4. Back 





180 FARM LIVESTOCK 

be rather low for saddle purposes. The body is rather 
short and usually deeply ribbed, the ribs springing out 
well from the spine with a symmetrical curve; the back 
is well sustained with heavy muscles; the loins are 
broad and muscular; the croup is rather long and level, 
and the tail is set high and usually carried with style; 
the quarters are long and deep, but the gaskins and 
hocks are not of the most approved shape. The legs 
and feet are of good size and shape for strength. 

Contrary to popular opinion, the prevailing color of 
the Arab is not snow white, or coal black, or spotted. 
The best authorities state that about 50% of the animals 
are bays, about 20% are chestnuts, and about 30% are 
grays and white with dark skin; occasionally a brown 
specimen is found and very rarely a black. 

As a saddle horse the Arab ranks high. 

THE THOROUGHBRED HORSE 

The Thoroughbred has a fine, lean head that has 
quality, eyes that are prominent and intelligent, ears 
of medium size, a broad forehead, a heavy jaw, and a 
refined muzzle. The neck is long and rather thin, the 
crest fairly straight from the withers to the poll, and 
the head carried somewhat low with the nose pointing 
forwards when the animal is running. In the best 
specimens of the breed, the shoulders are obliquely set 
and well covered with muscle, and the withers are high 
and thin. The chest of a Thoroughbred has a tendency 
to be narrow and deep; very narrow chests, however, 
are objectionable. It is desirable that the front legs, 
from the bottom, or floor, of the chest to the ground, 
should be little more than half the height of the horse. 
The back and loins are comparatively short and well 
muscled, the conformation of these parts indicating an 
ability of the animal to carry weight. The ribs are 
long and well sprung. The croup is of good length, 
rather level, and curved gracefully with the tail, which 
is attached at a medium height and is somewhat lightly 



FARM LIVESTOCK 181 

haired. The Thoroughbred is heavily muscled in the 
thighs and quarters, which are long and deep, exhibiting 
great propelling power. The gaskins, or lower thighs, 
should be broad, and the feet and joints should show 
strength and quality. The cannons are broad and the 
pasterns are longer than those of any other breed and 
frequently too sloping. It is desirable that the hind 
legs should be a trifle straighter than in the case of 
harness horses. 

In color, Thoroughbred horses are variable. Bay and 
brown are the most common and the most popular colors, 
although chestnut is by no means uncommon, and black, 
sorrel, gray, and roan occasionally occur. 

THE AMERICAN SADDLE HORSE 

Between 1830 and 1840 many horses were taken into 
Kentucky, principally from Virginia and other eastern 
states and from Canada. Most of the horses from 
Virginia were either Thoroughbreds or animals largely 
permeated with Thoroughbred blood. Many of those 
taken from New York and the New England states 
were pacers, and were descendants from crosses of the 
early French Canadian mares with the stallions of New 
York and New England. It is probable, also, that 
many of them were descendants of the Narrangansett 
Pacer, a well-known strain that existed in the eastern 
part of the country in colonial times. These pacing 
horses, when taken to Kentucky, were crossed with 
the Thoroughbreds that had been brought from Virginia. 
From the animals resulting from this cross the American 
Saddle horse has been developed. 

The size most desired for animals of this breed is a 
height of from 15 hands 1^ in. to 15 hands 2^/^ in. and 
a weight of from 950 to 1,100 lb. The saddle horse 
exhibits much style in carriage of head and in arch 
of neck and tail. In the best animals of the breed, 
the back is very strong and hence capable of sus- 
taining considerable weight. The shoulders and pasterns 



182 FARM LIVESTOCK 

are usually long, obliquely set, and springy. The croup 
is long and level, and the tail is long, set high, and 
stylishly carried. 

Gaits of the Saddle Horse.— The most distinguishing 
feature of the saddle horse is his variety of gaits. The 
three natural gaits of a horse are the walk, trot, and 
gallop. The gallop, in the case of the saddle horse, has 
been changed by training to the canter. The canter is 
performed by practically the same movement of the legs 
as the gallop, but is slower and easier on the rider. 
Some saddle horses have only the three gaits, the walk, 
the trot, and the canter; and are known as walk-trot- 
canter horses, or merely as plain-gaited horses. Many 
saddle horses have acquired through training two addi- 
tional gaits, the rack and a slow gait. The rack is a 
gait in which each foot strikes the ground separately 
and in a peculiar rhythm. The rack was formerly 
termed the single-foot gait, but the American Saddle 
Horse Breeders' Association has officially adopted the 
term rack. The slow gait may be either the running 
walk, the slow pace, or the fox trot, all of which are 
closely allied. The running walk is faster than the 
common walk but is performed with the same rhythm; 
that is, each foot strikes the ground independently of 
the others. The slow pace is a slow, modified form of 
the common pace. The fox trot is a slow trot or a jog 
trot. A horse that can show the walk, the trot, the 
canter, the rack, and the running walk or the slow 
pace or the fox trot is called a gaited horse. 

THE MORGAN HORSE 

The Morgan horse is small, standing from 14 to 15^ 
hands high, and weighing from 900 to 1,200 lb. The 
head is small and neat, the forehead being broad and 
high. The eyes are large and brown, and are neatly set 
in the head. The head and ears are smaller and more 
refined than those of the American Trotter, and the 
neck is longer, has a better crest, and is set better, 



FARM LIVESTOCK 183 

being carried higher. The shoulders are long and ob- 
liquely set, and the chest is deep and capacious, indi- 
cating endurance and hardiness of constitution. The 
back is short and well muscled; the ribs spring well 
from the spine, giving a round barrel; the croup is long 
and the tail neatly set; and the limbs are clean and 
cordy, the bone being of the best quality. The pre- 
vailing colors are bay, chestnut, brown, and black. 
Although but few Morgans ever attained phenomenal 
speed, most of them have good action and are clean, 
open-gaited trotters. Many of them with a little school- 
ing readily acquire saddle gaits. 

THE AMERICAN TROTTER 

The American Trotter breed, the animals of which are 
commonly known as standard-bred horses, includes both 
the trotter and the pacer. In fact, the trotting and the 
pacing gaits are somewhat interchangeable and many of 
the so-called trotting horses have both. In the early 
development of this type, breeders failed to recognize 
any standard toward which to breed, but simply bred 
for speed. The American Trotter horse is scattered 
widely throughout the United States, being found in 
almost every section. He is distinctly the product of 
America and has been developed because of the love 
of Americans for horse racing at the trotting and 
pacing gaits. 

No breed of horses is characterized by such a great 
variation in size, conformation, and color, as the 
American Trotter. In fact, there is so little of breed 
type found among these light-harness horses that some 
persons refuse to recognize them as belonging to a 
breed. In the best of these animals there is great 
symmetry of form. The head is inclined to be a little 
large and coarse; the neck rather short, lean, and 
straight; the shoulders sloping and well laid; the back 
and loin longer than is desired; and the croup short 
and somewhat drooping. American Trotters usually have 



184 FARM LIVESTOCK 

deep chests and, as a rule, short, clean, fine-boned 
legs, and strong feet of excellent quality. The accion 
is quick and the stride long. Breeders desire a weight, 
in the case of stallions, of about 1,150 lb., and, in the 
case of mares, of about 1,050 lb. Bay and brown are 
the most common colors of these horses. 

THE ORLOFF TROTTER 

The Orloff Trotter has the characteristic conformation 
of light-harness horses and is used chiefly for driving 
purposes. The average height is about 16 hands, and 
the weight varies considerably, running from about 
1,000 to 1,300 lb. Gray, white, and black are the most 
common colors of these horses, although chestnut and 
bay are not uncommon. It is said that Orloff Trotters 
are lacking in quality. The head is usually small and 
the face dished. In good animals of the breed, the 
neck is strong, well arched, and carried high. The 
back is short and strong, and the loin full and muscular. 
The croup is somewhat sloping, being commonly criticized 
in this respect, but is heavily muscled. The shoulders 
are sloping but lack heaviness of form. The legs are 
strongly muscled and the bone and feet are regarded as 
of superior quality. 

THE HACKNEY HORSE 

The most desirable height for the Hackney is from 
\5y2 to 15^ hands, but the breed shows a wide variation 
in this regard. Some animals are less than 14 hands 
and others range over 16 hands. In England, the 
horses of this breed under 14 hands are called Hackney 
ponies; those from 14 to 15 hands Hackney cobs; and 
those 15 hands and over. Hackney carriage horses. They 
have all been bred much alike with the exception of 
size, which represents a difference of the breeders' ideas 
as to what is most desired and useful. The largest 
Hackney rarely weighs over 1,250 lb. Animals of this 
breed are usually stoutly built, compact, strong boned, 
muscular, and of kindly disposition. The head is light. 



FARM LIVESTOCK 185 

clean cut, and intelligent in appearance; the neck is 
strong, well arched and muscular, but free from coarse- 
ness; the shoulders are smooth and oblique; the body is 
rotund, short, and compact; the legs are short, strong 
boned, and flattish; the tendons are prominent; and the 
hoofs are symmetrical and of good quality. The action 
of the Hackney is high, quick, elastic, and regular, the 
hocks being well flexed. The common colors are bay, 
chestnut, and brown, although black, roan, gray, and 
buckskin occasionally occur. 

THE FRENCH COACH HORSE 

The French Coach breed of horses, as the name im- 
plies, originated in France. The name French Coach, 
however, is an American one, there being no breed of 
that name in France. The breed known in America as 
French Coach is termed in France the Demi-Sang, 
meaning half blood. The horses of this breed are, on 
an average, about 16 hands high. The average weight 
of the stallions is about 1,350 lb., and of the mares 
about 1,200 lb. There is, however, considerable varia- 
tion in the size. French Coach horses have a good 
length of body; a refined, well-placed neck; and a 
neat head. The back is short, broad, and well muscled; 
the croup is level and of good length; and the tail is 
well carried. The limbs are well placed, of good shape, 
and have quality; and the feet and pasterns are of 
superior quality. The trot of the French Coach horse 
is not so snappy and high as that of the Hackney, but 
the, stride is longer and more powerful. Bay and brown 
are the prevailing colors, but black and chestnut are 
not unusual, and sometimes other colors occur. 

THE GERMAN COACH HORSE. 

The German Coach breed of horses, as the name sug- 
gests, is a product of Germany. Horses of this breed 
range in height from 15^ to 17 hands, and weigh from 
1,250 to 1,600 lb. The usual height is from 16 to WA 



186 FARM LIVESTOCK 

hands, and the weight from 1,300 to 1,500 lb. The head 
of the German Coach is neat, the neck is long and 
arched; the shoulders are oblique and well placed; and 
the withers are prominent. The German Coach horse 
is larger than the French Coach horse, the body being 
longer and heavier. In color, the German Coach horses 
are bay, brown, and black, brown and bay being more 
prevalent than any other color. 

THE CLEVELAND BAY HORSE 

In height, the Cleveland Bay ranges from about 16 
to 16M hands, and weighs from 1,200 to 1,550 lb. The 
body is of the large coach type. The neck is of mod- 
erate length and the head is neat. The shoulders are 
long and sloping; the back and loins short and broad; 
and the croup high. These animals have an abundance 
of bone of good quality, and their action is good, 
although by no means as high as that of the Hackney. 
The color of the Cleveland Bay horse is always some 
shade of bay, either light or dark, with black legs, 
mane, and tail. 

THE YORKSHIRE COACH HORSE 

The Yorkshire Coach breed is recognized as a distinct 
breed in England, but is registered in the same stud 
books as the Cleveland Bay in the United States. The 
Yorkshire Coach horse is not so heavy as the Cleveland 
Bay but is a little taller, often standing 17 hands high. 
He is finer in bone, with more quality and refinement 
about the limbs, head, and neck, and is also a little 
more snappy in his action. In the best animals, the 
color is bay or brown, with black eyes; and there is an 
abundance of mane and tail. 

THE PERCHERON HORSE 

Percherons range in height from about 16 to 17^ 
hands and weigh from about 1,600 to 2,200 lb. An 
average weight for a Percheron stallion in good condition 



FARM LIVESTOCK 187 

is from 1,900 to 2,000 lb. The Percheron has a deep, 
thick, compact body on rather short legs, which are 
devoid of the long hair characteristic of the Clydes- 
dale and the Shire. The head is neat and refined, of 
good width between the eyes and the jaws, and tapers 
to a refined muzzle; the forehead is broad and full; and 
the ears are small, pointed, and carried erect. The 
neck is of moderate length, rather arched, and is 
usually set well on the shoulders. 

In action, the Percheron is quick and energetic, ex- 
hibiting considerable snap. Percherons are good walkers 
but have a shorter stride than either the Clydesdales or 
the Shires. The trot is performed with vim and energy, 
and the knees and hocks are usually flexed well when 
carried forwards. Gray and black are the predominating 
colors, although occasionally bay, brown, and chestnut 
occur. The Percheron has a sanguine temperament, and 
an amiable disposition, in these respects being the best 
of all the draft breeds. 

THE CLYDESDALE HORSE 

Clydesdales commonly range in height from 16 to 17 
hands, and weigh from about 1,800 to 2,000 lb. In the 
best animals the head is of good shape; the shoulders 
are rather oblique; and the chest is somewhat narrower 
than in animals of the other draft breeds. The body 
of the Clydesdale is criticized by many competent 
judges, who assert that it is lacking in depth and cir- 
cumference. The feet, bone, and action are cardinal 
points with Clydesdale breeders, and in these respects 
animals of the breed are superior. A prominent charac- 
teristic of Clydesdale horses is the long, fine, silky hair, 
commonly termed feather, which grows out from the 
backs of the cannons and from the coronets. 

In the early days a few of the Clydesdales were black, 
a few were gray, and a few were chestnut, but the 
Highland Agricultural Society made it a rule that only 
bays and browns should be allowed to compete for 



188 FARM LIVESTOCK 

prizes. This checked the production of blacks and grays, 
which were rather common in the country at that time. 
Gray Clydesdales are still unpopular, and some authori- 
ties think that a chestnut color indicates Shire blood. 

THE SHIRE HORSE 

Shire stallions range in height from 16 to 17^ hands 
and weigh from about 1,800 to 2,400 lb. The shoulders 
are massive and powerful. The back is of moderate 
length and the croup of fair length, although not so 
level as that of the Clydesdale. The Shire is inclined 
to be a little plain over the hips and a little too short 
and straight in the pasterns. The feet are inclined to 
be small and too flat, lacking height at the heel, and 
also brittle, especially feet of a white color. As a 
rule, animals of the breed have an abundance of bone. 
A deep chest and heavily muscled shoulders, thighs, and 
quarters are characteristic of the breed. Shire horses 
have a profuse growth of feather coming out from the 
cannons; often the feather is not as fine and silky as 
is desired. 

Horses of the Shire breed are usually of a bay or 
brown color, although black, gray, and occasionally 
chestnut occurs. As a rule, they have white faces, the 
white extending from the forehead to the muzzle, and 
one or more white feet and legs, the white extending 
to the knee or hock, and occasionally higher. • 

THE BELGIAN HORSE 

The Belgian is the heaviest of all draft horses. The 
stallions range in height from 16 to 17 hands and vary 
in weight from 1,800 to 2,500 lb. The mares, of course, 
are considerably lighter in weight than the stallions, 
but are heavy in comparison with mares of the other 
draft breeds. 

The characters that distinguish the Belgian draft 
horse from the horses of other draft breeds are the deep, 
thick body and short legs, which are free from long 



FARM LIVESTOCK 189 

hair. He lacks the levelness of top that is desired, 
many animals of the breed being low in the back, rising 
rather high on top of the hips, and being rather short 
and drooping in the croup. The neck of the Belgian is 
short and thick and has a heavy crest that extends to 
the poll. The pasterns, in many instances, are a little 
short and upright, and the feet are small, having much 
the shape of the feet of a mule. 

The prevailing colors of the Belgians are chestnut, 
bay, brown, and red roan; occasionally black and in- 
frequently gray occurs, the latter color, however, not 
being popular. 

THE SUFFOLK HORSE 

Suffolk horses range in height from I51/2 to 16^^ 
hands high and weigh from about 1,700 to 1,800 lb. The 
Suffolk is not claimed to be strictly a draft horse, but 
is suited for agricultural purposes. 

The Suffolk differs from the Clydesdale and the Shire 
in that it is free from all long hair on the limbs. It 
has a neat head, which is wide in the forehead, and the 
jaw tapers to the muzzle. The neck is of good length 
and the crest exceptionally well developed, presenting 
an arched appearance. The shoulders are long but not 
extremely straight nor obliquely set. The legs, which 
are rather short, are free from feather, and appear to 
be a little light in bone; however, breeders disclaim this, 
stating that it is simply because they are free from 
feather. The pasterns are of moderate length and the 
feet are of good texture, although at one time they were 
criticized for being too flat. 

In color, the Suffolk is always some shade of chestnut, 
either light or dark, the light being preferred. The 
color of horses of this breed is exceptionally uniform. 

MARKET CLASSES OF HORSES 

The market classification of horses is based on their 
size, conformation, height, weight, style, and action. A 
classification based on such widely variable characters 



190 FARM LIVESTOCK 

as these must necessarily be somewhat flexible, that is, 
the lines of division between the classes must be more 
or less a matter of personal opinion and subject to 
change according to the market demands for and the 
supply of any particular class. Many animals go to 
market and help to supply the demand that are not 
altogether typical of the market class in which they are 
sold. In attempting to meet the market demands, if 
there are not enough horses of a particular type, dealers 
try to fill the demand as far as possible with animals 
that are only partly typical of the class. 

In the table on page 191 are given the names of the 
market classes and subclasses of horses, and the height 
and weight requirements for each. It will be seen that 
in most cases the name of the class and subclass is 
suggestive of the use to which the horses belonging to 
it are put. 

Draft-Horse Class.— The draft-horse class is composed 
of horses that are broad, massive, rugged, and compact, 
and have sufficient weight, strength, and endurance to 
pull heavy loads. The weight should come from size 
rather than an abundance of fat. Draft horses range in 
height from 15^ to 17j^ hands, and weigh from 1,600 to 
2,200 lb. or more. The action should be energetic and spir- 
ited, and the stride at the walk should be long and rapid. 

The draft-horse class has been divided into light 
draft horses, heavy draft horses, and loggers, but the 
distinction between the light and the heavy subclasses 
is rarely made on the market, pertaining almost ex- 
clusively to the show ring. 

Light draft horses are from 15)4 to I6I/2 hands high 
and weigh from 1,600 to 1,750 lb. Although 15^4 hands 
is accepted as the minimum height, a horse of this 
height is less desirable that one that is taller, and 
it closely approaches the eastern chunk subclass. 

Heavy draft horses are the heaviest type of horses; 
they weigh from 1,750 to 2,200 lb. or more, and are from 
16 to 17y2 hands high. 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



191 



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192 FARM LIVESTOCK 

Loggers are heavy draft horses that are used in the 
lumbering regions for drawing heavy loads of logs. They 
usually differ from the heavy draft horses in being 
plain, rough, or slightly unsound in some respect, such 
as being defective in wind, having sidebones, boggy 
hocks, etc. Occasionally, good horses are purchased for 
logging purposes, but as a rule the trade demands 
rather cheap animals. 

Chunk Class. — Horses of the chunk class are short 
legged, broad, and heavy set. As a class, chunks are 
less uniform in type than the animals of any other 
class. They vary in height from 15 to 16 hands and 
weigh from about 800 to 1,550 lb. The subclasses of the 
chunk class are eastern and export chunks, farm 
chunks, and southern chunks. 

Eastern and export chunks are of much the same type 
and conformation as draft horses, but are a little more 
blocky and compact. At one time a considerable num- 
ber were exported, but in recent years the price has 
been too high to permit of a profit in such business. 
Eastern and export chunks are largely used in pairs 
and in threes for trucking purposes. 

Form chunks are an important item in the horse mar- 
ket, particularly during the spring months. At other 
seasons they are usually sold to supply demands other 
than for farming. Farm chunks are lighter in bone and 
not as uniform in type as eastern chunks. 

Southern chunks, or southern horses, as they are more 
generally called, are lighter in bone and more rangy 
in conformation that farm chunks. They are somewhat 
of the road-horse type, and usually have considerable 
light-horse blood. Southern chunks are taken to the 
southern states, where they are largely used for agri- 
cultural purposes. 

Wagon-Horse Class.— Animals of the wagon-horse 
class are used principally for the pulling of light wagons, 
such as delivery and express wagons, on city streets. 
Horses of good action are required for this purpose, as 



FARM LIVESTOCK 193 

they are required to do their work at a fairly rapid gait. 
Horses of this class are from about 15 to 17J<^ hands 
high and weigh from about 1,050 to 1,700 lb. The sub- 
classes of the wagon-horse class are express horses, 
delivery-wagon horses, artillery horses, and fire horses. 

Express horses are used singly or in pairs by express 
companies in the collecting and delivering of packages. 
The size of the horses that are used is determined by 
the weight of the wagon, whether the horses are worked 
singly or doubly, and the extent of the territory from 
which collections and deliveries are made. The lightest 
grade of express horses, which are used for the de- 
livering of valuable packages, such as money, etc., are 
known as money horses; such horses must be capable 
of doing fast work. 

Delivery-cvagon horses, or, as they are often termed, 
wagon horses, are similar to express horses, but are not 
quite so large and generally not as high grade, as most 
mercantile firms do not care to pay large prices for 
horses. However, there are exceptions, some large de- 
partment stores buying nothing but choice animals. 

Artillery horses should be from 5 to 8 yr. old. Only 
geldings are used for artillery purposes, and the demand 
is rather spasmodic. 

Fire horses, as the term implies, are animals that are 
used for the drawing of fire-fighting apparatus. Because 
of the fact that such horses are required to pull com- 
paratively heavy loads at fast speed, it is necessary 
that they be more rangy than express horses. 

Carriage-Horse Class.— Horses of the carriage-horse 
class are used foi drawing heavy vehicles and are fre- 
quently spoken of as heavy-harness horses. They range 
in height from 14^ to 16^ hands and weigh from 900 to 
1,250 lb. The subclasses of the carriage-horse class are 
coach horses, cobs, park horses, and cab horses. 

Coach horses must have high action and beauty of 
form. They must flex the hocks well under the body 
and carry the knees high toward the chin. They are a 
13 



194 FARM LIVESTOCK 

little larger than other horses of the carriage class, and 
may be said to be a little more stately in action than 
cobs or park horses. 

Cohs are small, stocky coach horses. The cob is a 
popular English type, and in England a horse is never 
considered a cob that is over IS hands high. The action 
of the cob is much the same as that of the coach horse, 
being, perhaps, a trifle higher at the knees and hocks. 
Cobs should be somewhat quicker on their feet than 
coach horses. 

Park horses are used strictly for display purposes, such 
as for driving in parks or on boulevards, and are usually 
used by horse fanciers. An abundance of quality and 
extremely high action at both knees and hocks are 
essential in horses of this subclass. 

Cab horses are usually either the lower grades of the 
coach class or worn-out and discarded coach horses. 
They are used chiefly in cities for the conveyance of 
vehicles for public service. 

Road-Horse Class. — Road horses are more lithe in build 
and angular in form than those of the carriage class. 
They are frequently spoken of as drivers or as light- 
harness horses. Although performance is the principal 
quality sought, a good conformation is very desirable. 
This class is composed of runabout horses and roadsters. 

Runabout horses occupy an intermediate place between 
typical roadsters and carriage horses. They wear har- 
ness much like that of carriage horses, but in action 
and conformation and in the use to which they are put 
they correspond more to the roadster. They are not so 
heavy and full as coach horses, and are not so light, 
thin, and angular as roadsters. They are used on run- 
abouts, driving w^gigons, phaetons, etc. 

Roadsters are less uniform and usually more lithe 
and angular than runabout horses. In general, a 
roadster may be described as having the greyhound 
form, often being a little higher at the hips than at 
the withers, and powerfully developed in the hind 



FARM LIVESTOCK 195 

limbs. Speed, style, and stamina are the principal 
qualities sought for. 

Saddle-Horse Class.— The most important requirement 
for an animal of the saddle-horse class is to be sure of 
foot, as no rider cares to mount a stumbler. A saddle 
horse should also be an easy rider, and be easily con- 
trolled. In selecting a saddle horse, it is a good plan 
to choose a conformation that will place the rider well 
back on the animal, thus lessening the weight on the 
fore end. The subclasses of the saddle-horse class are: 
five-gaited saddlers, three-gaited saddlers, hunters, 
cavalry horses, and polo ponies. 

Fivc-gaited saddlers, often spoken of as gaited saddle 
horses or as American saddle horses, are the result of 
skilful selection and breeding for more than half a 
century. They have the five recognized distinct gaits 
under the saddle, namely, the walk, the trot, the canter, 
the single-foot, or rack, and a slow gait, which may be 
either the running walk, the fox trot, or the slow pace. 

Three-gaited saddlers are much the same in general type 
and conformation as the five-gaited saddlers, but they 
are a kittle more compactly built, having shorter necks 
and bodies; the tails are usually docked and set; and 
they have only the three gaits: the walk, the trot, and 
the canter. 

Hunters are horses used by sportsmen to ride after 
hounds. They are often required to take daring leaps 
over fences and gullies, and must be fearless and trained 
to jump. They should be strongly built and able to 
stand long, hard rides without becoming unduly jaded. 

Cavalry horses, as the name implies, are horses used by 
the government for cavalry mounts. For this service, 
the government requires geldings of uniform and lasting 
color, that are from 4 to 8 yr. old. 

Polo ponies are small saddlers that are used in playing 
polo. The four essentials which they must have are a 
specified size, weight-carrying ability, agility, and speed. 



196 



FARM LIVESTOCK 




FARM LIVESTOCK 197 



DAIRY CATTLE 

DESCRIPTION OF DAIRY TYPE 

The majority of animals of all breeds of cattle that 
are noted for the secretion of large quantities of milk 
have a peculiar and distinct conformation, commonly- 
termed the dairy conformation, and animals that 
have this conformation are said to be of the dairy type. 
The most distinguishing features of the dairy type are 
the triangular, or wedge, shape of the body and the 

Names of Exterior Regions of Dairy Cattle 

a, Poll n, Thigh 

b, Neck 0, Pin bones, or thurls 

c, Muzzle p, Flank 

d, Face q, Fore flank 

e, Forehead r, Udder 

f, Withers s, Teats 

g, Shoulders t, Milk veins 
li, Chest M, Escutcheon 
i, Barrel v, Navel 

y, Back, or chine w, Dewlap 

k, Loin A, Heart girth 

/, Hips B, Width of Chest 

VI, Rump 

lean frame. This conformation is decidedly more marked 
in the females than in the males. 

In addition to being wedge-shaped, the characteristic 
dairy form is angular, or lean; that is, it has a com- 
paratively thin covering of muscular tissue. The 
shoyilders are thin and the ridge of the shoulder blade 
is prominent. The ribs are thinly covered with muscle, 
particularly on the upper part close to the backbone. 
The loin is broad and flat but bony, and the thighs 
are thin, flat, and incurved at the rear as viewed from 



198 FARM LIVESTOCK 

the side. That the angularity is due to a lack of mus- 
cular development rather than to a lack of fatty tissue 
is shown by the fact that cows of the dairy type 
frequently take on fat when far advanced in the period 
of lactation or when completely dry. 

The characters of the dairy type of animal that have 
just been described are the most striking, but there 
are numerous minor characters that distinguish this 
type from thj beef type. Among these are: leanness of 
head, breadth of muzzle, and thinness of neck. The 
dairy type of cow also has a distinctly feminine ap- 
pearance. 

The desired conformation of a dairy cow is shown in 
the accompanying illustration, (a), (&), and (c) showing, 
respectively, a profile view, a rear view, and a front 
view. The different exterior regions of the animal are 
marked with letters and in connection are given the 
corresponding letters with the names commonly applied 
to these regions. 

JERSEY CATTLE 

Jersey cattle are characterized by small to medium 
size. The official score card of the breed calls for from 
800 to 1,000 lb. as the weight of a mature cow. The bulls 
weigh considerably more than this, their weight usually 
ranging from 1,200 to 1,800 lb. when they are mature. 

A prominent characteristic of the Jersey form is the 
tendency of the bones to be short and curved. For 
instance, the face is short and usually dished; the 
hind legs are crooked; and in many cases there is more 
or less of a tendency for the back to depart from a 
straight line. 

In color, the Jersey is variable. The typical color, 
however, is fawn or gray shading to black at the ex- 
tremities, with a black muzzle, a black tongue, and a 
black switch at the end of the tail. As a rule, there is 
a ring of light-colored hair immediately about the 
muzzle. In some animals, particularly in bulls, the 



FARM LIVESTOCK 199 

gray shades to black over the whole body, and in others 
the fawn color deepens to almost a red. A considerable 
proportion of Jerseys are marked with more or less 
white. 

The Jerseys produce a moderate quantity of milk, 
which contains a high percentage of butter fat. Normal 
Jersey milk contains about 5% of butter fat; frequently 
the per cent, is less and frequently greater, in some 
cases rising as high as 7%. In quantity of butter fat 
produced in a year, the Jersey ranks as one of the 
leading dairy breeds. 

GUERNSEY CATTLE 

Guernseys are of a larger size than the Jerseys, 
although the animals, as a whole, cannot be character- 
ized as large. Mature cows will seldom weigh more 
than 1,200 lb., and occasionally weigh less than 1,000 
lb. The official score card of the breed calls for a 
weight of 1,050 lb. for a cow 4 yr. old or over, and 
1,500 lb. for a bull of the same age. 

In form. Guernseys have the characteristic wedge 
shape and the spareness and angularity of conformation 
of the dairy type, although in some animals there is a 
slight tendency to beefiness and to thick, heavy 
shoulders. This latter conformation is more frequently 
seen in bulls, although a number of the cows are thicker 
through the shoulders than is desirable. 

The bones of the Guernsey are much straighter than 
those of the Jersey and are inclined to be somewhat 
longer. 

The characteristic Guernsey color is fawn and white. 
Breeders of fancy stock prefer the colors to be about 
equally distributed and in rather large blocks or 
patches. Occasionally, Guernseys are seen with no 
white at all; and the number of animals of this breed 
in which the white color includes more than two-thirds 
of the whole surface is comparatively small. The shade 
of fawn varies from very light to very deep or dark, 



200 FARM LIVESTOCK 

almost red, the shade most preferred being usually de- 
scribed as orange fawn. Whatever the shade of fawn, 
there should be no black hairs, especially in streaks or 
patches, forming a brindled appearance, 

A characteristic of the Guernseys that has considerable 
influence in affecting their color is a profuse secretion 
of yellow coloring matter, which pertains to the whole 
skin, but may be seen especially on those parts where 
the skin is bare or only thinly covered with hair, such 
as in the ears, about the muzzle, in the fore flank, and 
about the vulva. In the best specimens, this secretion 
is of a deep golden-tan color shading into orange yellow. 
This color extends also to the hoofs and horns, giving 
these, especially in choice specimens, an amber appear- 
ance. The muzzle of the Guernsey should be of a clear 
flesh color tinged with orange. 

Guernseys do not produce large quantities of milk, 
but their milk is ordinarily of about the same quality 
as that of the Jerseys, varying from 4^ to 6^% of 
butter fat. The milk, cream, and butter of the Guern- 
seys are of a higher color than the similar products of 
any other breed. 

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE 

Holstein cattle are characterized by large size. Mature 
cows of the breed seldom weigh less than 1,200 lb. and 
not infrequently reach a weight of 1,400 to 1,500 lb. The 
bulls, when mature, often exceed 2,000 lb. in weight. 
The characteristic wedge shape is usually strikingly 
developed in these cattle. In general, the form is in- 
clined to be spare, although in many individuals there 
is considerable muscular development, even approaching 
what may be termed beefiness. The animals have long, 
straight faces, long backs, long ribs, and the legs, in 
some cases, are rather long. The back and legs are 
straight, although there is often a decided tendency for 
the back to droop from a point over the hip bones to the 
root of the tail. 



FARM LIVESTOCK 201 

A prominent character of Holstein cattle is their color, 
which is distinctly black and white, the two colors 
being entirely separate from each other. The proportion, 
of the two colors is variable, running from almost all 
white to almost all black; during recent years the pro- 
portions most desired by the breeders have been rather 
more white than black, with the two colors in rather 
large patches. Although animals marked in this way 
are considered to be more desirable, little discrimination 
is made against those showing other proportions of color. 

Holstein cows excel those of all other breeds in milk 
production. The percentage of butter fat in the milk, 
however, is small, in occasional instances so small as 
to interfere seriously with the sale of the milk as such. 
In addition, the butter fat in Holstein milk is soft and 
of rather light color, but with modern methods of butter 
manufacture these disadvantages are largely overcome, 
so that, taking into consideration the large quantity of 
milk produced, Holsteins are often as satisfactory as 
any breed from the standpoint of butter production. 

AYRSHIRE CATTLE 

Ayrshire cattle are of medium size. The American 
standard calls for a weight of about 1,000 lb. in the case 
of mature cows, and of 1,500 lb. for mature bulls. The 
Scotch standard calls for a weight of about 1,050 lb. for 
a mature cow. 

The characteristic wedge shape of the dairy type is 
clearly defined in the Ayrshires. Their lines are 
straight and their bones fine and well knit together, 
which gives them a smooth appearance even when they 
do not carry much flesh. They are particularly round 
in the barrel, and the hindquarter is long, strong, and 
square. The cows commonly have large, symmetrical 
udders, with rather small teats placed wide apart and 
on ^ the lines of a square. 

In color, Ayrshires are the most variable of any of the 
dairy breeds, running from almost pure white to all 



202 FARM LIVESTOCK 

admixtures, except roan, of white with yellow red, red, 
dark red, brown, and even black. The most common 
color at the present time is dark red and white, with 
a large preponderance of white in most cases. 

Although definite statistics are lacking, it is com- 
monly believed that Ayrshires are particularly econom- 
ical users of feed, and that, in proportion to the feed 
consumed, their milk production is relatively high. 
Ayrshires give a large flow of milk, ranking next to 
Holsteins in this respect, although the milk is not par- 
ticularly rich in butter fat, seldom exceeding 4%. 

DUTCH BELTED CATTLE 

Dutch Belted cattle are of medium size, being in this 
respect comparable to the Ayrshires. The cows average 
about 1,000 lb. when full grown, and the mature bulls 
about 1,500 lb. Animals of this breed have a distinct 
dairy form. 

In color, the Dutch Belted cattle are black and white; 
the black is confined to the forequarters and hindquar- 
ters and the white extends in a broad belt about the 
middle. Much attention is given by breeders to the 
particular markings of the animals. In a perfectly 
marked specimen, the white belt should extend from the 
shoulders back to the hips in a regular band around the 
whole body. In the case of the cows, the band, or belt, 
includes the forward half of the udder; in the case of 
the bulls, the belt is similar, except that the sheath . 
of the penis is usually black. A very narrow belt or a 
belt running onto the forequarters or the hindquarters 
is looked on with disfavor, as is any irregularity of the 
belt, such as a black spot in the white or broken patches 
of white in the black areas. 

In milk production, the Dutch Belted cattle have 
considerable merit, and there are many animals of the 
breed that are listed high in this respect. 



FARM LIVESTOCK 203 

BROWN SWISS CATTLE 

Brown Swiss cattle are of large size and rather heavy 
form. The bones of the head and legs are large and 
strong, giving the animals a sturdy appearance. Many 
specimens have considerable muscular development, 
enough to be described as beefy, although they do not 
approach the pronounced beef type as seen in beef 
breeds. 

In color, the Brown Swiss are of a uniform dark 
grayish-brown or mouse color, running toward gray in 
the flanks and on the belly, and with a light ring about 
the muzzle. There is little variation in the color. 
Occasionally, an animal will shade a little darker 
toward black and occasionally one a little lighter 
toward light gray. 

The Brown Swiss are hardy and vigorous and, as a 
rule, easy to keep in good condition. As milk pro- 
ducers, they vary considerably. Few individuals have 
made notable records. 

SIMMENTHAL CATTLE 

The Simmenthal breed of dairy cattle is closely related 
to the Brown Swiss breed. The animals of the Sim- 
menthal breed are from the valley of the Simme in 
Switzerland, and are found in largest numbers in the 
vicinity of Berne, in that country. They are similar 
to the Brown Swiss in all respects save color. In color, 
they are a light fawn mixed with white. Only a few 
have been imported into America. 

FRENCH CANADIAN CATTLE 

French Canadian cattle are small, of a strictly dairy 
type, and somewhat resemble the Jersey in form. In 
color, they vary from a dark reddish brown to black, 
and almost never have any admixture of white. They 
are -prized by their owners on account of their activity 
and vigor and their ability to thrive under adverse 



204 



FARM LIVESTOCK 




FARM LIVESTOCK 



205 



conditions as to feed and climate. They have not, as yet, 
become firmly established as a breed in any part of the 
United States. 



BEEF CATTLE 
DESCRIPTION OF BEEF TYPE 

Beef cattle are cattle that are kept primarily for the 
production of beef, in contrast to dairy cattle, which are 
raised primarily for the production of milk. 



Names 


OF 


Exterior Regions 


OF Beef Cattle 


7, Muzzle 








20, 


Fore ribs 


2, Face 








21, 


Midribs 


3, Tongue fat (feeder' 


s wattle) 


22, 


Barrel 


4, Poll 








23, 


Belly 


5, Breast 








24, 


Hind flank 


6, Brisket 








25, 


Back 


7, Shoulder 


point 




26, 


Loin 


8, Neck 








27, 


Rump 


9, Dewlap 








28, 


Hooks 


10, Shoulder 


vei 


in 




29, 


Thighs 


//, Shoulder 








20, 


Gaskins 


12, Withers 








31, 


Hocks 


13, Elbow 








22, 


Pin bones 


14, Arm 








22, 


Tail head 


15, Knee 








24, 


Switch 


16, Cannon 








25, 


Twist 


17, Dew claws 






36, 


Udder in cows; cod 


18, Crops 










in steers; scrotum 


19, Fore flank 








in bulls. 



An animal of the correct beef type has a compact 
form. It is short in the neck and legs, and has a broad, 
short head; well-sprung ribs; a deep, broad chest; well- 
laid-jn shoulders and hips; a long, level rump; and 
well-fleshed thighs. The top line and bottom line are 



206 FARM LIVESTOCK 

approximately straight and parallel. In general, a 
beef-type animal has a high percentage of meat to bone 
and offal. 

Animals of the beef type invariably show marked indi- 
cations of having a high percentage of the blood of one 
or more of the recognized improved breeds of beef 
cattle. The breeds that are classed as beef breeds are: 
the Shorthorn, the Polled Durham, the Hereford, the 
Aberdeen-Angus, the Galloway, and the Sussex. 

In describing beef cattle, it is necessary to mention 
various parts and regions of the body. The location of 
all of the parts and exterior regions about which doubt 
might arise is shown in the accompanying illustration. 
In (a) is shown a profile view of an animal; in 
(&), a front view; and in (c) a rear view. These views 
also illustrate the ideal type of beef animal. 

SHORTHORN CATTLE 

The Shorthorn breed has wonderful adaptability, and 
this quality has led to wide distribution of the animals 
not only in this country under various conditions, but 
in nearly every country in which cattle are bred. 
Shorthorns were the first cattle used for improving the 
cattle on the ranges, but notwithstanding their value 
for this purpose, they are best adapted to a system of 
mixed farming, such as is carried on in the Central 
States. The Shorthorns are popular in localities where 
land is high in value, because many of the animals yield 
a profit in milk as well as in calves. 

The Shorthorn may be red, white, red and white, or 
roan in color. Animals of the breed are the heaviest 
of the beef cattle, mature bulls often weighing as much 
as 2,400 lb. At present the tendency is to breed for 
early maturity, and as a result present-day Shorthorns 
are not as large and coarse as they were formerly. The 
Shorthorn is characterized by great scale and substance, 
together with symmetry and style. The Shorthorn is a 
good feeder and makes large gains for the feed consumed. 



FARM LIVESTOCK 207 

The breed is very popular in the United States, Canada, 
England, and other countries where beef is produced. 
The "Prime Scots," so popular in the English markets, 
are crosses of the Shorthorn on the Aberdeen-Angus, 
and the "blue-gray" steers are crosses of light-colored 
Shorthorns on Galloways. 

POLLED DURHAM CATTLE 

Polled Durhams have been developed along two lines, 
the single standard and the double standard. The 
single-standard line of breeding had its origin in crosses 
of Shorthorn bulls on native muley, or hornless, cows. 
The term single standard is derived from the fact that 
animals of this line of breeding can be registered only 
in the American Polled Durham Herd Book. The 
double-standard line of breeding had its inception in 
what might be termed a freak of nature— the birth of 
hornless calves from pure-bred Shorthorn parents. The 
term double standard is derived from the fact that 
animals of this strain are eligible to registry in both 
the American Polled Durham Herd Book and the 
American Shorthorn Herd Book. 

In size, color, and general appearance, the Polled 
Durhams are similar to the typical Shorthorn, save 
that the Polled Durhams are hornless. The preferred 
and prevailing color is red. The breed is so much like 
the Shorthorn that no additional description need be 
given. 

The breed is not yet sufficiently strong in numbers and 
has not been handled enough for dairy purposes to 
furnish milk records of value. The animals have been 
from the first, and continue to be, bred primarily for 
the development of beef qualities as their dominant 
character, consequently their dairy qualities must be 
regarded as a secondary consideration. 



208 FARM LIVESTOCK 

HEREFORD CATTLE 

In general conformation, the Hereford represents the 
beef type to an extreme, having a broad, deep, com- 
pactly built, thick-fleshed body set on short legs. The 
horns are white or waxy yellow, often coarser and con- 
siderably longer than those of the Shorthorn; in cows 
and steers they are often a little elevated, but in bulls 
they are usually drooping. The color of the Hereford 
is red with white markings. The most common mark- 
ings are a white face, a white stripe on top of the 
neck and sometimes part of the way down the back, 
white on the legs from the hock down, and more or 
less white on the belly. White may occur to a greater 
or less extent on any part of the body. Herefords have 
proved to be especially well adapted to range conditions 
and are used more extensively for the improvement of 
the cattle on the ranges of the West and Southwest 
than are the animals of any other breed. In size, the 
Herford ranks a little below the Shorthorn. The bulls 
often weigh as much as 2,200 lb. and the cows 1,500 lb. or 
more. 

ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE 

The striking features of the general outline of the 
Aberdeen-Angua are smoothness, compactness, and a 
cylindrical shape of the body. The Aberdeen-Angus 
are low-set; have great style, quality, and symmetry; 
and are evenly and smoothly covered with a wealth of 
firm flesh that retains its smoothness and firmness even 
if the animals are forced in fattening. 

In the early history of the breed, browns, blacks, reds, 
and brindles were common, but now black is the pre- 
vailing color, although red calves are occasionally 
dropped, showing a tendency to revert back to the old 
colors. White is objectionable except on the bottom 
line behind the navel, and it is tolerated there only to 
a moderate extent. In size, the Aberdeen-Angus is 
somewhat smaller than the Shorthorn; mature cows 



FARM LIVESTOCK 209 

usually weigh from about 1,200 to 1,600 lb. and mature 
bulls, from about 2,000 to 2,200 lb. 

An important point in favor of the Aberdeen-Angus 
is their hornless character. 

It is frequently claimed that the Aberdeen-Angus 
surpasses all other breeds in the production of beef. 
There is, of course, a considerable difference of opinion 
as to this, but it is safe to say that the Aberdeen-Angus 
is second to none as an all-round beef breed, and is, 
in some respects, superior to all others. This claim is 
substantiated by the position that the breed has taken 
at the leading fat-stock shows and by the high regard 
in which the meat is held in the market. 

The milking qualities of the Aberdeen-Angus have 
been considerably neglected, more attention having been 
paid to beef production. However, there are some indi- 
viduals and certain strains of the breed that make a 
creditable showing as milkers. 

GALLOWAY CATTLE 

Galloways are best adapted for a cold, damp climate, 
their special qualifications for these conditions being 
.ruggedness and a thick coat of hair that protects them 
from cold and rain. They have been found very suit- 
able for Dakota, Montana, and Idaho ranches, and for 
the Canadian Northwest. Being of a rather small frame 
and very muscular and active, they are well adapted 
to rugged pastures. 

The Galloway is a thick, low-set, symmetrical, black, 
polled animal, resembling somewhat the Aberdeen- 
Angus. In good animals the head is short and broad, 
without any trace of horns or scurs, and is surmounted 
by a poll that is not quite as sharp as that of the 
Aberdeen-Angus. The ears are set a little farther back 
than those of the Aberdeen-Angus and point forwards 
and upwards, and have a fringe of long hair. The 
body is cylindrical but somewhat longer and flatter in 
the rib than that of the Aberdeen-Angus. 
14 



210 FARM LIVESTOCK 

The color of the Galloway is black with a brownish 
tinge; white markings on the feet, legs, or any portion 
of the body above the bottom line are very objectionable. 

In size, the Galloway hardly equals the Shorthorn, 
Hereford, or Aberdeen-Angus. Galloway steers can 
usually be made to weigh from 1,000 to 1,200 lb. as 
yearlings past; from 1,200 to 1,400 lb. at 2 yr. old; 
and from 1,400 to 1,600 lb. at 3 yr. old. Mature bulls 
will weigh about 1,800 to 1,900 lb., and mature cows 
from about 1,200 to 1,500 lb. 

The Galloway is distinctly a beef breed and lays no 
claim to milking qualities, although the animals pro- 
duce enough milk to raise their calves, and the milk is 
of good quality. 

SUSSEX CATTLE 

The Sussex are best adapted to localities that are 
rich in crop production and temperate in climate. Their 
grazing qualities are nearly if not quite equal to those 
of the Herefords. Ttiey are very hardy, which is due 
largely to the manner in which they have been handled. 
The color of the Sussex is solid red, a moderately deep 
shade being preferred. The horns are inclined to be 
large and long, curving around in front and often in- 
clining slightly downwards. The nose is of flesh color. 
The form is blocky, the ribs being well sprung and 
long, and the body capacious. The Sussex is compara- 
tively large, ranking about on a par with the Hereford 
in size. The average weight of mature cows is about 
1,400 lb. and of mature bulls about 2,000 lb. 

The Sussex has long been held in high esteem as a 
beef breed, as might be assumed from the excellent 
showing it has made at fat-stock shows in England. In 
beef production it is comparable to the Shorthorn and 
the Hereford. 



FARM LIVESTOCK 211 

DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 

DESCRIPTION OF DUAL-PURPOSE TYPE 

Dual-purpose cattle are cattle that are kept for the 
production of both beef and milk. An appropriate term 
for them and one that is commonly applied is general- 
purpose cattle. They produce, when fattened, fairly 
satisfactory carcasses of beef, although they are not 
the equals of the special-purpose beef cattle in this 
respect, and the cows give a sufficient quantity of milk 
of fair butter^fat content to warrant milking them. If 
cattle of a dual-purpose breed or strain possess merit as 
beef animals but are without dairy qualities, they 
should be classed as beef cattle. If, on the other hand, 
they possess dairy qualities but neither they nor their 
offspring exhibit beef qualities, they should be classed 
as special-purpose dairy cattle. 

The dual-purpose type of animal is not restricted to 
any particular breeds, but because a large number of 
animals of certain breeds are of this type, the breeds 
are spoken of as dual-purpose breeds. These breeds 
are: the Devon, the Red Polled, and the Brown Swiss; 
certain animals and strains of the Shorthorn breed are 
also classed as dual purpose. 

DEVON CATTLE 

In color, the Devon is a solid red, with the exception 
of deep orange-colored rings around the eyes and oc- 
casionally a small amount of white in front of the 
udder or the scrotum and in the switch. White is not 
permissible on any other part of the body. The red 
varies from dark to light; some breeders prefer one 
shade and some the other. 

The Devon is smaller than the Shorthorn and the 
Hereford, the size varying greatly, however, with the 
breeding, feeding, and care. The lack of size of the 
Devons makes them less popular than they would 



212 FARM LIVESTOCK 

otherwise be, but what they lack in size they make up 
in quality, fattening powers, compactness of flesh, per- 
fection of form, splendid handling qualities, and beauty 
when finished. The average weight of mature cows 
is about 900 lb. and of mature bulls about 1,200 lb. The 
bulls seldom weigh more than 2,000 lb. 

Combining fair flesh and milk-producing qualities, 
the Devons are very suitable animals for hilly regions 
where a system of mixed farming is followed. 

RED POLLED CATTLE 

The Red Polled breed is one of the best of the dual- 
purpose breeds. Red Polls produce an abundant quan- 
tity of milk and the steers fatten readily, producing 
carcasses that are very acceptable to the butcher. As 
the name implies, the animals are without horns, all 
indications of such being very objectionable. The color 
is red, varying from a light to a dark shade. A solid 
red is preferred, but a little white is permissible on 
the udder, on the belly, and on the switch of the tail. 
In size, the Red Poll ranks below most of the animals 
of the beef breeds. Typical mature bulls of the breed 
will weigh from about 1,800 to 2,000 lb. and mature cows 
from about 1,100 to 1,300 lb. 

Although the dairy qualities of the Red Poll do not 
rank with those of special dairy cattle, the breed stands 
high in this respect among the dual-purpose cattle. 



MARKET CLASSES OF CATTLE 

Variations in the quality, condition, weight, and age 
of cattle reaching the great livestock markets make it 
necessary that different classes and grades be estab- 
lished. If it were not for these classes and grades it 
would be impossible properly to designate different 
kinds of cattle and intelligently to report market con- 
ditions through the public press. A list of the various 
market classes and grades of cattle is given in the 
accompanying table. 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



213 



Market Classes and Grades of Cattle 



Classes 
Beef cattle 



Butcher stock 



Cutters and 
canners 



Stockers and 
feeders 



Veal calves 



Grades 
Prime steers 
Choice steers 
Good steers 
Medium steers 
Common steers 

Prime heifers 
Choice heifers 
Good heifers 
Medium heifers 
Prime cows 
Choice cows 
Good cows 
Medium cows 
Common rough steers 
Choice bulls 
Good bulls 
Medium bulls 

Good cutters 

Medium cutters 

Common cutters and good canners 

Medium canners 

Inferior canners 

Bologna bulls 

Fancy selected feeders 

Choice feeders 

Good feeders 

Medium feeders 

Common feeders 

Inferior feeders 

Feeder bulls 

Fancy selected yearling stockers 

Choice yearling stockers 

Good yearling stockers 

Medium yearling stockers 

Common yearling stockers 

Inferior yearling stockers 

Good stock heifers 

Medium s'tock heifers 

Choice 
Good 
Medium 
Common 



Milkers and springers 



214 FARM LIVESTOCK 

Beef Cattle.— In the beef-cattle class are included all 
grades of fat steers and occasionally the best grades 
of fat heifers and cows. Condition and quality rather 
than weight determine whether an animal shall be in- 
cluded in this class. Beef cattle are in demand in the 
Chicago market by three classes of buyers: exporters, 
packers, and shippers. Exporters desire fat cattle for 
export to the British markets; packers desire them for 
slaughter in Chicago as dressed beef; and shippers de- 
sire them for shipping to Boston, New York, Philadel- 
phia, Pittsburg, Baltimore, Cleveland, Albany, Detroit, 
and many smaller eastern cities. The Chicago packing 
houses use from about 50 to 60% of the beef cattle sold 
on the Chicago market, and the exporters and shippers 
from about 20 to 25% each. 

The beef cattle class is made up of the following 
grades: Prime steers, choice steers, medium steers, and 
common rough steers. Prime steers are those that are 
practically above criticism as to both condition and 
quality. The bulk of the prime steers sold at Chicago 
weigh from about 1,200 to 1,600 lb. Choice steers are 
not quite right as to either quality or condition but 
have to a marked degree desirable characteristics. Such 
steers usually weigh from about 1,150 to 1,600 lb. Steers 
that are of good quality, but noticeably lacking in con- 
dition or in finish, or those that are finished but are 
deficient in quality, or those lacking in both quality 
and condition but above the average are graded as 
good. They weigh from about 1,150 to 1,600 lb. Steers 
of about average quality and condition but lacking to 
a marked degree the finish and quality demanded in a 
prime steer are graded as medium steers. Steers of this 
grade are usually of light weight, weighing from about 
1,100 to 1,400 lb. Common rough steers, as the term 
implies, are the roughest grade of beef cattle. Such 
steers weigh from about 900 to 1,200 lb. 

Butcher Stock.— A large number of cattle of all grades 
as to weight and quality reach the market after having 



FARM LIVESTOCK 215 

been merely warmed up — an expression used by cattle- 
men to designate the fact that cattle have been full fed 
but a short time. Then, no matter how carefully 
stockers and feeders are selected, there is almost sure 
to be a few animals that do not fatten satisfactorily. 
These, together with the better grades of heifers, cows, 
and bulls are classed as butcher stock. The butcher 
stock class is made up of the following grades: prime 
heifers, usually weighing from about 800 to 1,200 lb.; 
choice heifers, weighing from about 700 to 1,000 
lb. ; good heifers, weighing about the same as choice 
heifers; medium heifers, weighing from about 600 to 900 
lb.: prime cows; choice cows; good cows; medium cows; 
common rough steers; choice bulls; good bulls; and medium 
bulls. 

Cutters and Canners.— Thin cows, inferior steers, 
rough heifers, and the poorer grades of bulls, provided 
they carry sufficient flesh to allow of the loin or rib, 
or both, being used for cutting, or selling over the 
butcher's block, are classed as cutters. Cutters are a 
slightly better grade of cattle than canners, which are 
cattle of the same general class as cutters, but too 
inferior to allow of even a part of their carcasses being 
used for sale over the butcher's block. Canners are 
used largely for canning purposes. The class of canners 
and cutters and the grades within this class are more or 
less elastic and variable, as are all market classes and 
the grades within them. 

The bulk of cattle classed as cutters and canners may 
be graded as follows: Good cutters, medium cutters, common 
cutters, and good canners, medium canners, inferior canners. 
and Bologna bulls. The impression prevails among persons 
unfamiliar with the cutter-and-canner trade that only old, 
thin cows are classed as canners. This is an erroneous im- 
pression, as wretchedly thin bulls, steers, and heifers are 
included as well. 

Stockers and Feeders.— The class known as stackers and 
feeders includes calves, yearlings, 2-yr.-olds, and older 



216 FARM LIVESTOCK 

cattle. When it is necessary to refer to steers or bulls 
18 mo. old or older that are intended for immediate 
use in the feed lot, they are spoken of as feeders. 
Calves, heifers, and young steers, including yearlings, 
are referred to as stackers. Some difficulties are en- 
countered, however, in attempting to draw a definite 
line between stockers and feeders. Cattle of the same 
grade, age, quality, and weight shipped to the country 
by two different feeders might not be handled at all 
alike; one feeder might use them as stockers while 
the other might place them in the feed lot for imme- 
diate use. 

It is seldom that a steer weighing less than 800 lb. 
is placed in the feed lot; the common practice is to 
buy steers for feeders that weigh from 900 to 1,000 lb. or 
more. Such steers are usually 18 mo. of age or older. 
Steers spoken of in the market as feeders are, generally 
speaking, in better flesh than stockers. As a rule, there- 
fore, feeders may be classified as steers weighing 900 lb. 
or more, that are 18 mo. old or older, and that are 
fleshy enough to render an extended period of low feed- 
ing unnecessary. 

The stocker and feeder class of cattle is divided into 
the following grades: Fancy selected feeders, choice feeders, 
good feeders, medium feeders, common feeders, inferior feeders, 
feeder bulls, fancy selected yearling stockers, choice yearling 
stockers, good yearling stockers, medium yearling stockers, com- 
mon yearling stockers, inferior yearling stockers, good stock 
heifers, medium stock heifers, and common stock heifers. 

Veal Calves.— Calves of suitable age, condition, and 
weight to sell, when slaughtered, as veal are classed as 
veal calves. Veal calves are graded as follows: Choice 
veals, good veals, medium veals, and common veals. 
Weight is not as important in determining the grade of 
a veal calf as age and flesh, although desirable weight 
in the good and choice grades of veals is important. A 
veal either 25 lb. too light or too heavy may be sold 
at a reduced price when one of the same quality, age, 



FARM LIVESTOCK 217 

and flesh, but of desirable weight, would sell as a choice 
veal. It is more difficult to distinguish breeding in 
young calves than in older cattle; it is fortunate, there- 
fore, that the breeding of veals is of little importance 
and that the most important point is to get fane finish 
on a young calf— say a weight of from about 140 to 160 
lb. with faultless finish on an 8-wk.-old calf. 

Milkers and Springers.— A cow that is in milk 
when she goes to market or has a calf at her side is 
classed as a milker. One that shows unmistakable signs 
of pregnancy is classed as a springer. Milkers and 
springers may be either slaughtered or returned to the 
farm to serve as dairy cattle or as breeding stock. 



SHEEP 

In order that the description of the types and breeds 
of sheep may be more intelligible, the position of the 
different parts of a sheep is indicated on the animal 
shown in the accompanying illustration. The names 




of the different parts are as follows: a, head; h, neck; 
c, shoulder; d, brisket; e, top of shoulder, or withers; 
/, fore leg; g, chest; h, back; i, loin; ;, hip; k, rump; 
/, leg of mutton; m, twist; n, hind leg; o, flank; p, belly; 
q, fore flank; r, ribs, or sides; and s, tail, or dock. 



218 FARM LIVESTOCK 

WOOL TYPE OF SHEEP 

From the sheep that centuries ago were raised in the 
southern part of Europe, especially in the hills of 
Spain, and fostered by the early Romans, there has 
been developed a type of sheep known as the wool 
type. The animals of this type are noted for the pro- 
duction of a large quantity and a fine quality of wool, 
from which the finest woolen cloth is made. 

A typical wool-type animal is angular in shape; the 
skin lies in folds over the body, especially about the 
neck; and the head presents a strong and rather coarse 
appearance, particularly in the case of a ram that shows 
great vitality. The neck is long, rather thin, and often 
droops where it joins the body; the shoulders are close 
together, sharp, and prominent on top; the brisket is 
narrow ; the fore legs are close together, with the fore 
feet often wider apart than the knees; and the fore 
flanks are low but thin. The ribs slope downwards 
sharply from the backbone, which appears to be too 
long for the length of the sheep; the back is narrow; 
the loin is thin and narrow; the rum.p is short and in- 
clined to droop abruptly from the hips, which are also 
narrow; the thighs are thin and separated well up 
toward the tail, or dock; the flanks are thin; the bot- 
tom line is generally level; and the legs have a 
tendency to be long. 

Some breeds of the wool type of sheep have been 
developed by feeding, selection, and breeding until they 
produce a fair quantity and quality of mutton as well 
as excellent fleeces of wool. 

MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP 

In the British Isles, sheep raising has been carried 
on for several centuries, but in this region the chief 
aim of the breeder has been the production of a fine 
quality of mutton, wool production being a secondary con- 
sideration. The type of sheep that has been developed 



FARM LIVESTOCK 219 

under these conditions is known as the mutton type. 
In form, a sheep of the mutton type is smooth, round, 
compact, symmetrical, and free from angularities, and 
the flesh is evently distributed over the carcass. The 
head is broad between the eyes, which are large and 
prominent; the neck is short and thick; the brisket 
is broad and full; the fore legs are short, straight, and 
set squarely under the body; the fore flanks are well 
filled so that there is but a slight depression just back 
of the shoulders, which are evenly and deeply covered 
with flesh and are smooth and round on top. The ribs 
are well covered with flesh and spring boldly out from 
the backbone, making the back broad and level and the 
body cylindrical. The loin is broad and thickly cov- 
ered with flesh; the flanks are let well down but are 
thick, giving a straight bottom line that is parallel with 
the top line. The hindquarters are broad; the rump is 
long and level; and the twist extends well down to the 
hocks. The legs stand well apart; and the thighs, both 
on the outside and between the legs, are well covered 
with flesh, thus making a good leg of mutton. 

Sheep of breeds of the mutton type produce heavy 
fleeces, but these are not of as fine a quality as those 
produced by sheep of the wool type. 

AMERICAN MERINO SHEEP 

In general appearance, a typical animal of the Ameri- 
can Merino breed of sheep more nearly represents the 
ideal wool type than does an individual of any other 
breed in America. The American Merino is narrow 
and angular in conformation; has a rather long neck 
and long leg; and has many distinct folds in its skin, 
except on the back. 

The head of the American Merino is small as com- 
pared with the heads of animals of other breeds, and 
usually the lips, nostrils, legs, and part of the face 
are covered with fine, white, silky hair. The ears are 
small, and, as a rule, are covered like the parts just 



220 FARM LIVESTOCK 

mentioned, with fine, white hair, although occasionally 
tan-colord spots of hair are found on one or more of 
such parts. The head of the ewe is hornless, but the 
rams carry heavy, spiral horns, which are marked with 
transverse wrinkles. 

In size, American Merinos vary greatly. It is gen- 
erally accepted, however, that mature ewes should 
weigh about 100 lb. and mature rams about 150 lb. 

The American Merino is an inferior animal for mut- 
ton production, because it does not make a rapid growth, 
lay on flesh rapidly, or produce a first-class carcass. 
The meat is lacking in quality, and there is always 
much waste in dressing, due to the extensive folds of 
the skin, the long legs, and the large proportion of 
bone to flesh. 

In wool production, sheep of the American Merino 
breed surpass those of all other breeds in America. 
Sheep of no other breed produce as fine or as heavy 
fleeces. 

DELAINE MERINO SHEEP 

Sheep of the Delaine Merino breed differ from Ameri- 
can Merino sheep in having a larger and better mutton 
carcass, fewer wrinkles and folds on the body, and 
longer wool that contains less yolk. The minimum 
weight for ewes of the various families of Delaine 
Merinos varies from 100 to 130 lb., and the minimum 
weight for the rams, from 150 to 180 lb. 

The Delaine Merino breed is really a branch of the 
American Merino breed, and has been developed prin- 
cipally in the section including the western part of 
Pennsylvania, the Panhandle district of West Virginia, 
and a few counties in the eastern part of Ohio. 

The Delaine Merino is superior to the American 
Merino for mutton production, and, as a rule, is inferior 
in wool production. 



FARM LIVESTOCK 221 

RAMBOUILLET SHEEP 

In general appearance, a typical animal of the Ram- 
bouillet breed of sheep bears some resemblance to the 
American Merino, but the Rambouillet is larger and 
has more of a mutton carcass. The outline of the body- 
is rounder and more plump; the back is broader; the 
ribs are better arched; and there is a better develop- 
ment of loin, hindquarters, and leg of mutton, and a 
deeper fleshing all over the body than in the American 
Merino. The females are hornless, but the rams usually 
bear large, spirally curved horns; occasionally, polled 
rams are found. 

In size, the Rambouillet is considerably larger than 
the American Merino. Mature rams usually weigh from 
175 to 250 lb., and occasionally one will weigh 300 lb. 
Mature ewes weigh from about 110 to 150 lb., and 
mature wethers from about 150 to 200 lb. 

The Rambouillet is not one of the best breeds of 
sheep for mutton production, but it is better in this 
respect than the American Merino, although not so 
good as the Delaine Merino. 

The Rambouillet is one of the best breeds for wool 
production. The wool covers the body evenly, is of 
good length on the belly, and grows well down on the 
nose and legs. 

SOUTHDOWN SHEEP 

The Southdown breed of sheep probably more nearly 
represents the ideal mutton type than does any other 
breed. In general appearance, the typical Southdown 
presents a compact, broad, deep, and smooth body evenly 
covered with flesh. The head is small and hornless in 
the case of both rams and ewes. 

The Southdown is the smallest of the medium-wool 
breeds, and is often criticised on account of its lack of 
size. However, the carcass of a Southdown is so com- 
pact that mature rams of the breed will weigh, on an 
average, about 175 lb. and mature ewes about 135 lb. 



222 FARM LIVESTOCK 

For the production of mutton, the Southdown breed is 
one of the best. Animals of this breed are good feeders, 
make good gains for the feed consumed, mature quickly, 
and can be made ready for the market at almost any age. 

In wool production, the Southdown does not rank 
high, although the wool is finer in quality than that of 
sheep of any other breed of the mutton type. 

SHROPSHIRE SHEEP 

The Shropshire breed of sheep is a medium-wool breed 
that is popular with sheep raisers. The sheep of this 
breed are larger and heavier than those of the South- 
down breed, which they resemble in general conforma- 
tion, although they are not so compact as the South- 
downs. Both the ram and the ewe are hornless, and in 
the case of the best specimens of the breed, the head, 
with the exception of a small part of the nose, is covered 
with a dense cap of wool. The nose of the ram is 
slightly Roman, and the nostrils are strong and large; 
the head of the ewe is finer than that of the ram and 
the nose is straight. The ears of a Shropshire sheep are 
small, short, pointed, moderately thick, wide apart, and 
covered with short, fine wool. 

In size, the Shropshire is about an average of the 
sheep of the medium-wool breeds. Mature rams should 
weigh about 225 lb. and mature ewes from 150 to 160 lb. 

The Shropshire breed ranks next to the Southdown in 
the quality of mutton produced; in fact, the quality of 
Shropshire mutton is claimed by some to be equal to 
that of the Southdown. Shropshires fatten readily and 
there is comparatively little offal in dressing. 

The wool of Shropshire sheep is of superior fineness 
and crimp for a medium-wool breed, is usually about 
3y2 in. in length, and often contains a considerable 
quantity of yolk. The fleeces from a flock of Shropshire 
sheep should average about 7 or 8 lb. in weight. 



FARM LIVESTOCK 223 

OXFORD DOWN SHEEP 

Sheep of the Oxford Down breed are the largest of 
the animals of the medium-wool breeds. They resemble 
the Southdowns and Shropshires in general conformation, 
which is that of the mutton type. The head is hornless, 
the poll, or top of the head, is well covered with a 
tuft or a topknot of wool, and the cheeks are covered 
with wool, although the rest of the face is usually 
covered with dark hair. The ears are rather long, thin, 
set low and well back, and are free from wool. The 
face and legs are of a dark-brown color. The body is 
practically the same as that of the Shropshire. The 
rump is broad, level, and well covered with flesh. 

When mature, Oxford Down rams should weigh not 
less than 275 lb., and some rams of the breed have 
attained a weight of 400 lb. Mature ewes should weigh 
about 200 lb. Lambs dropped in April should weigh 
from 100 to 120 lb. in the following September. 

In the ability to produce mutton, Oxford Down sheep 
rank high on account of their large carcasses, the 
small proportion of waste in dressing, and the fine 
quality of the mutton. The lambs grow rapidly and 
attain a desirable killing size at 12 mo. of age, and 
when kept until older they continue to make good gains. 

As wool producers, the Oxford Downs are much in 
favor on account of their heavy fleeces. The wool is 
of a quality known as combing wool, which is longer 
and coarser than that from sheep of any of the other 
medium-wool breeds. The fleeces from a flock of good 
Oxford Down sheep should average from 10 to 12 lb. 

HAMPSHIRE SHEEP 

The ears, nose, and legs of Hampshire sheep are of a 
uniformly dark-brown color that often shades to almost 
black. The ears, the back of which may be of a dark 
mouse color, are rather long and in the best specimens 
of the breed are inclined to fall slightly outwards. The 



224 FARM LIVESTOCK 

head is well covered with wool between the ears and on 
the cheeks; the neck is rather long, thick, and well 
muscled, and the body is very much like that of an 
animal of the Oxford Down breed. 

The Hampshires raised in America are lighter in 
weight than the Oxford Downs, but in England the 
Hampshires are often regarded as the heaviest sheep of 
the medium-wool breeds. Mature rams should weigh 
about 250 lb. and mature ewes about 190 lb. Occasion- 
ally, by careful breeding and good care, rams weighing 
300 lb. are produced. 

For production of mutton, Hampshire sheep have long 
ranked high. The wool of the Hampshire sheep is of 
medium length and not so fine as that of the Southdowns. 

DORSET SHEEP 

The Dorset breed of sheep, also known as the Dorset 
Horn breed, is a breed that is distinctly marked. Both 
the rams and the ewes have horns. The horns of the 
ram are spirally curved rather close to the head; those 
of the ewe are shorter, smaller, not so close to the 
head and are curved less than those of the ram. The 
sheep of the Dorset breed have white faces and legs. 
The face, muzzle, ears, and that part of the legs below 
the knees and hocks are covered with short, white hair. 
The nostrils are large and white. The body of the 
Dorset, although smooth and well covered with flesh, is 
longer in proportion to its depth and width than the 
body of a sheep of the other breeds of the mutton type. 

In size, sheep of the Dorset breed rank somewhat 
above the average of those- of the medium-wool breeds. 
Mature rams should weigh about 225 lb. and mature 
ewes about 165 lb.; an extra good 2-yr-old ram has 
been known to weigh 317 lb.; a yearling ram, 287 lb.; 
a 5-mo.-old ram lamb, 184 lb.; and yearling ewes, 
250 lb. 

In the production of mutton, sheep of the Dorset breed 
rank only fair among those of the medium-wool breeds. 



FARM LIVESTOCK 225 

Sheep of this breed dress with a larger percentage of 
waste than those of some other breeds, although the 
quality of the meat is fair. The principal value of 
Dorset sheep is in the production of early, or hothouse, 
lambs, for which they have long been highly valued. 
The Dorset does not rank high in production of wool. 

CHEVIOT SHEEP 

Sheep of the Cheviot breed are white in color and 
have a graceful • carriage. The head is usually hornless 
in the case of both the male and the female, although 
occasionally horns occur on the ram; according to an 
enactment of the American Cheviot Sheep Society, all 
male lambs dropped after January 1, 1905, are ineligible 
to registry unless they have a true polled head. The 
head, back to a line just back of the ears and around 
under the middle of the lower jaw, and the legs from 
the knees and hocks down, are usually covered with 
fine, white hair; sometimes small black spots, which are 
not considered objectionable, appear on the head and 
ears. Reddish or sandy hairs that occasionally occur 
on the face and legs are objectionable. 

A mature Cheviot ram should weigh from 200 to 225 
lb. and a mature ewe from 150 to 160 lb. 

The quality of the meat of the Cheviot is good, 
although not so delicate as that of the Southdown, and 
there is comparatively little offal in dressing. 

Cheviot sheep produce fleeces of a medium quality 
known in the market as half combing wool. 

SUFFOLK SHEEP 

Sheep of the Suffolk breed have a characteristic inky- 
black color in the region of the head, ears, and legs. 
The head, in the case of both the male and the female, 
is hornless. The face is long and narrow, and the ears 
long and rather large. The face and the ears are cov- 
ered with jet-black hair; there is rarely any wool on 
any part of the head, although a small quantity of 
15 



226 FARM LIVESTOCK 

clean, white wool on the forehead is not regarded as 
objectionable. 

In size, the Suffolk sheep rank somewhat above the 
average of those of the medium-wool breeds. Mature 
rams should weigh from about 225 to 240 lb., and mature 
ewes about 175 lb. 

Sheep of this breed rank high for the quality and 
quantity of the mutton that they produce, but do not 
rank high as wool producers. 

LINCOLN SHEEP 

Sheep of the Lincoln breed are large, squarely built 
animals, and are nearly white in color. The head is 
large and hornless in the case of both the ram and the 
ewe; the face is rather long and usually is covered 
with fine, white hairs, but frequently has a grayish 
tinge over the nose; the poll is surmounted by a short 
tuft of wool; and the ears are large and often covered 
with brownish spots. 

Lincoln sheep are the largest of any breed. Mature 
rams should weigh from about 275 to 300 lb., and mature 
ewes from about 225 to 250 lb. 

Lincoln sheep are good feeders and mature quickly, 
but they do not rank high as mutton producers. The 
carcass is too large to suit the modern market demand, 
yields too much fat, and the quality of the meat is not 
first class. 

Sheep of this breed produce longer wool and heavier 
fleeces than those of any other breed with the exception 
of sheep of the fine-wool breeds. 

LEICESTER SHEEP 

The Leicester breed is divided into two strains; the 
English, or Dishley, Leicester, and the Border Leicester. 
These names are derived from the sections of England 
where the two strains were developed. The sheep of 
the two strains are much the same in general appearance, 
and the same description will apply to both, except 
where differences are stated. 



FARM LIVESTOCK 227 

The heads of both the ram and the ewe are hornless 
and usually are white, although small black spots occa- 
sionally occur on the face and ears. The head of a 
Border Leicester is covered with fine, soft, white hair, 
but occasionally the poll of the head of a Dishley 
Leicester is covered with a tuft of short wool. The 
ears are thin, somewhat large, and stand rather erect. 
The nose is slightly Roman and the skin at the muzzle 
is black. The hindquarters are not so large as breeders 
desire, because the thighs are not sufficiently thick, 
especially near the hocks. 

When mature and fitted for market, Leicester sheep 
carry too much fat to be popular. The lambs fatten 
readily and make desirable mutton if killed before they 
are 12 mo. old. 

The wool of Leicester sheep is about 6 in. long and is 
a fine grade of coarse wool. 

COTSWOLD SHEEP 

Sheep of the Cotswold breed are large, long-wooled, 
and white in color, and somewhat resemble those of the 
Lincoln and the Leicester breeds. The head in the case 
of both the male and the female is hornless and carried 
high, and the poll is surmounted by curling locks of 
wool, which often almost cover the eyes and extend 
down as far as the nostrils. This forelock is one of the 
characteristic features of the breed and is not trimmed 
when the sheep are shorn or trimmed for show. The 
face is usually covered with white hair, but is sometimes 
spotted with gray or brown patches. 

In size, Cotswold sheep are larger than those of the 
Leicester and almost and sometimes fully as large as 
those of the Lincoln breed. The weight of these sheep 
will average about 25 lb. lighter than that of the Lin- 
colns. A mature ram should weigh from about 250 to 275 
lb. and a mature ewe from about 200 to 250 lb. 

Cotswold sheep make a desirable grade of mutton if 
killed at about 1 yr. of age. If they are allowed ta 



228 FARM LIVESTOCK 

grow to 2 yr. of age, the carcasses are too large, bear 
too much fat, and the flesh is not of as desirable quality 
as when the sheep are killed at a younger age. 

Cotswold sheep produce a lustrous combing of wool 
that is rather coarse and hair-like, and hangs in spiral 
curls, or locks. The wool is coarser than that of either 
Leicester or Lincoln sheep. 

MARKET CLASSES AND GRADES OF SHEEP 

Almost the entire number of sheep and lambs received 
at the large livestock markets are classed as mutton 
sheep, feeder sheep, or breeding sheep. 

All sheep and lambs that are shipped to a large 
market and sold for slaughter, no matter what their 
condition, age, or weight may be, are classed as mutton 
sheep. The largest part of the sheep received in the 
market consists of this class, which is divided into the 
following subclasses: Lambs, yearlings, wethers, ewes, 
bucks, and stags. Lambs are animals that are mostly 
tinder 12 to 14 mo. of age. Yearlings are the castrated 
lambs from about 12 to 14 mo. of age until they are 
about 2 yr. old, or mature, after which they are 
known as wethers. All female sheep received in the 
markets and that are older than lambs are known as 
ezves. Rams after they have passed out of the lamb 
subclass are designated in the market as bucks. Male 
lambs that are castrated after they are 12 to 14 mo. old 
are classed in the market as stags. Each of the sub- 
classes described and the subclasses of the other market 
classes of sheep are further divided into market grades 
of sheep. The grades usually given in market reports 
are prime or fancy selected, choice, good, medium, and 
common, or culls. The grades rank in the order named 
in regard to the quality and the condition of the sheep. 

The class known as feeder sheep consists of sheep that 
are received in the markets in poor condition and that 
are sold to be fattened. The recognized subclasses of 
feeder sheep are lambs, yearlings, wethers, and ewes. 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



Market Classes and Grades of Sheep 



Classes 


Subclasses 




Grades 




Lambs 




f Prime 
Choice 
Good 

Medium 
.Common, or culls 




Yearlings 




["Prime 
< Choice 
I Good 
'Prime 


Mutton sheep 


Wethers 




. Choice 

Good 
'■Common 




Ewes 




'Prime 

Choice 

Good 

Medium 
.Common, or culls 




.Bucks and 


Stags 


Choice 

Good 

Common 




Lambs 




'Fancy selected 

Choice 

Good 

Medium 
. Common 


Feeder sheep 


Yearlings 
Wethers 




Choice 

Good 
. Common 
("Choice 
) Good 
1 Medium 
<■ Common 




Ewes 




f Choice 
i Good 
1 Medium 
L Common 


Breeding sheep 
Miscellaneous clas 


fFancy selected 

Common 
Bucks I Not graded 
ses: Hothouse lambs, export sheep. 


throv/-outs, dea 


1 sheep. 







230 FARM LIVESTOCK 

The class known as breeding sheep consists of those 
sheep that are bought in the large markets for breeding 
purposes. By far the largest number of sheep of this 
class are ewes. The rams, or bucks, as they are known 
in the markets, are few in number and most of them 
show a form and a mixture of blood that make them 
undesirable for breeding purposes. 

A miscellaneous class consists of hothouse lambs, 
export sheep, throw-outs or rejects, and dead sheep. 
Hothouse lambs are those dropped at a time of year that 
will permit of placing them, when 8 to 12 wk. old and 
weighing from 25 to 50 lb., on the market between 
Christmas and the first of May. The weight of the 
lambs will vary with their age. Export sheep are usually 
sheep in excellent condition and are of the prime and 
choice grades of any of the subclasses of the mutton 
class of sheep. Throw-outs are the sheep first placed in 
the feeder class on account of their poor condition and 
then rejected, or thrown out, by purchasers of feeder 
sheep, a privilege allowed by the market authorities. 
Such sheep are usually purchased by local butchers who 
cater to a cheap trade. Dead sheep are those that are 
killed in transit. They are sold for their wool and for 
fertilizing purposes. 

The classes, subclasses, and grades of market sheep 
are shown in the accompanying diagram. 



SWINE 

In describing the different breeds of swine, mention 
is made of certain parts of a hog, and in order that a 
clear understanding may be had of the location of these 
parts, they are designated by letters on the outline view 
of an animal shown in the accompanying illustration. In 
the illustration, a is the snout; b, the ear; c, the poll; 
d, the jowl; e, the neck; /, the shoulder; g, the front 
leg; h, the chest; ;, the side; j, the back; k, the loin; 
/, the rump; m, the ham; n, the hind leg; o, the fore flank; 



FARM LIVESTOCK 231 

p, the belly; q, the hind flank; r, the pastern joint; s, the 
scrotum; and t, the tail. 

LARD TYPE OF SWINE 

. Hogs of the lard type, as the term implies, produce 
large quantities of fat. The animals have, as a rule, 
well developed hams and shoulders, but they produce 
only a fair quantity of bacon. 

The animals of the different lard-type breeds are of 
the same general character, but differ in minor respects. 
An animal of the lard type should show good width and 
fair length, and should be built low to the ground. The 
snout should be of medium length, the eyes full, mild, 
and bright, the face short, the cheeks full, the jowl 




strong and broad, and the neck thick and of a medium 
length. The shoulders should be broad and compact on 
top, the chest broad, the sides deep, the back broad 
and thickly and evenly fleshed, the loins wide and 
thick, and the bottom line straight and even. The hams 
should be heavily fleshed, plump, full, deep, and wide. 



BACON TYPE OF SWINE 

Hogs of the bacon type, as the name indicates, pro- 
duce relatively large quantities of bacon. Their bodies 
are long, deep, and narrow throughout. The shoulders 



232 FARM LIVESTOCK 

and hams are not so well developed as in the lard type 
of hogs, but they should be smoothly covered with flesh 
and in line with the sides. The back should be of 
moderate but uniform width, and smoothly covered. The 
sides, as they are the parts from which the bacon is 
taken, should be long and deep, and have a good thick- 
ness of flesh. There should be no falling away at the 
flanks, and the flesh should be firm and free from 
wrinkles. 

In general appearance, hogs of the bacon type are 
long and narrow, have long heads, and stand up rather 
high on their legs. There is really no use of the great 
length of the head and legs, so far as meat production 
is concerned, but it seems impossible to breed hogs 
without there being a certain correlation of parts, and 
it has been found that a hog with long legs and head 
will generally have a long and narrow body. 

BREEDS OF THE LARD TYPE 
Berkshire Swine.— The Berkshire breed of swine 
originated in the southern part of England, particularly 
in the counties of Berkshire and Wilts. 

The animals of this breed are black in color and 
usually show six white points, namely, on the face, on 
the tail, and on the four feet. A splash of white on 
the jowl, under the neck, or on the fore legs is often 
found and is not regarded by the American Berkshire 
Association as a disqualification. White ears are some- 
times found, but they are not objected to by breeders 
and judges. The black of the Berkshires differs some- 
what from the black of some of the other breeds in that 
it is a sort of blue-black. 

The conformation of the modern Berkshire is typical 
of the lard hog. An animal of this breed has a short 
face that is gracefully dished; the ears are short, 
pointed, and usually erect; the back is broad and level; 
the hams are full; and the legs are short, strong, and 
straight. 



FARM LIVESTOCK 233 

Berkshires are of medium to large size. The average 
mature boar in good breeding condition should weigh 
about 500 lb. and the sow about 400 lb. Frequently 
specimens are found that weigh considerably more than 
these weights. The pigs can be made ready for market 
at from 6 to 8 mo. of age, if desired. 

Poland-China Swine.— The Poland-China breed of swine 
originated in the counties of Butler and Warren in 
Southwest Ohio, as a result of crossing the mongrel 
hogs of the early settlers with Berkshires and other old 
breeds from Europe and Asia. Associated with Butler 
and Warren counties in the early improvement of the 
breed were Hamilton County in Ohio, and Union and 
Wayne counties in Indiana, the five counties consti- 
tuting a region known as the Miami Valley. The 
Poland-China swine are black with six white points 
—white in the face, on the tip of the tail, and on the 
four feet. Splashes of white are sometimes found on 
the jaw, legs, flanks, sides, or back, and are not objected 
to by judges and breeders. The black should be jet 
black and not blue-black, as in the Berkshires. 

Like the Berkshires, the Poland-Chinas possess the 
characteristic conformation of the lard type. They have 
short heads, wide faces that are but slightly dished, full 
jowls, short and wide necks, broad shoulders, wide 
backs, well-sprung ribs, broad loins, full and broad 
hams, deep sides, and legs that are straight and of 
medium length. A distinguishing feature of the breed 
is the ears; these are rather small and on an ideal 
animal should stand up slightly at the base to within 
two-thirds of the tip, where a gentle break or drop 
should occur. 

Poland-China swine are of medium to large size. A 
mature boar in breeding condition should weigh about 
500 lb. and a mature sow about 400 lb. Poland-China 
pigs that are fed for market can usually be made to 
weigh 200 lb. at 6 mo. of age, and 250 lb. is by no 
means rare at this age. 



234 FARM LIVESTOCK 

Duroc- Jersey Swine.— The Duroc-Jersey breed of swine is 
an American breed that was originated by crossing the 
Durocs, a breed of red swine found in New York State, 
with the Jersey Red, a breed of red swine found in New 
Jersey. These original breeds constituting the foundation 
stock of the Duroc-Jerseys probably sprang from some of 
the red swine, such as the Guinea hogs, Portuguese hogs, 
red Spanish hogs, and Berkshires, that were imported 
into North America at an early date. 

The Duroc-Jerseys are of a cherry-red color when 
purely bred. It often happens, however, especially in 
mature animals, that they become copper or reddish 
gray in color, and in some instances the tips of the hairs 
turn black. These variations from the established 
cherry-red color are undesirable. Black spots on the 
belly and legs are also undesirable, but are admissible. 

The conformation of Duroc-Jersey swine is similar to 
that of the Berkshires and Poland-Chinas. The head 
is small, the face straight or slightly dished, the nose 
of medium length, the ears are of medium size and 
point forwards and downwards; the back is broad in 
comparison to Its length, the sides are deep, and the 
hams and shoulders are heavily fleshed and extend well 
down on the legs. 

In size, the Duroc-Jerseys are somewhat large. Mature 
boars in good breeding condition should weigh from 
about 500 to 550 lb. and mature sows in the same con- 
dition should weigh from about 400 to 450 lb. Duroc- 
Jersey pigs that are fed for market mature quickly and 
reach a good size. 

Chester White Swine.— The Chester White breed of 
swine originated in Chester County, Pennsylvania, as 
a result of crossing the common white swine of that 
locality with white hogs brought from Europe. 

In 1865, L. B. Silver, of Salem, Ohio, purchased some 
Chester White swine and began breeding with the pur- 
pose of securing a type of this breed of large size and 
superior quality. As a result of his breeding, a strain 



FARM LIVESTOCK 235 

known as Ohio Improved Chester White, commonly 
spoken of as O. I. C, was originated. A separate herd 
book is maintained by breeders of this strain. Both the 
old type of Chester Whites and the O. I. C. strain have 
been developed to the extent that they are to be found 
in all parts of the United States and Canada where 
swine are kept. 

The Chester White, as the name implies, is a white 
breed. Blue specks, known as freckles, are often found 
on the skin of these animals and are not objected to 
by judges, but black, sandy patches in the hair or on 
the hide are undesirable and will bar an animal from 
registration in the breed herd books. 

In conformation, the Chester Whites are of the typical 
lard-hog shape. They have short, broad heads, and 
slightly dished fac«^s. The ears are drooping but do 
not stand out so far from the head as in the case of 
animals of the Poland-China breed. In width and 
depth, Chester Whites are similar to the Poland-Chinas, 
but, as a rule, they have greater length. 

In size, the Chester Whites are large. Mature boars 
in breeding condition should weigh about 600 lb. and 
mature sows in the same condition, about 450 lb. Young 
animals that are fattened for market should weigh 
from about 250 to 275 lb. at 6 mo. of age. 

Mule-Foot Swine.— The origin of the Mule-Foot breed 
of swine is unknown. Certain breeders claim a knowledge 
of its origin, but their claims are discredited by the 
association fostering the interests of the breed. Doubt- 
less this lack of information is due to the fact that 
the breed has only recently been brought to public 
attention. 

The Mule-Foot hogs are characterized by a solid hoof, 
which resembles that of the mule, as the name indicates. 
This gives them great strength in the feet, a point 
widely exploited by their admirers. In color, they are 
black, although white points are admissible. It is 
claimed for the breed that no animal has ever been 



236 FARM LIVESTOCK 

known to have hog cholera, but this claim has been 
proved erroneous. The Mule-Foots are known to have 
great vitality and to be good feeders. 

Cheshire Swine. — The Cheshire breed of swine orig- 
inated in Jefferson County, New York. Evidence indi- 
cates that the breed is the result of crossing Large 
Yorkshire and White Suffolk swine with the native 
white swine of Jefferson County. 

Cheshires are white in color. Black spots sometimes 
occur on the skins of pure-breds and although objec- 
tionable do not disqualify them. The animals are 
smooth, compact, and of symmetrical proportions. As a 
rule, they mature early. They are of medium size, as a 
breed, but frequently specimens are found that are as 
large as the largest individuals of the lard-type breeds. 
The sows are good mothers and are very prolific. The 
feeding qualities of the animals of the breed have not 
been thoroughly investigated. 

Small Yorkshire Swine. — The Small Yorkshire breed of 
swine originated in England. Little is known of the 
foundation stock, but it is believed they were Chinese 
swine. 

Small Yorkshires are white, with occasional black 
spots on the skin. They are very small and compact. 
Animals of this breed are noted for quick-maturing 
qualities, and are well adapted for producing early 
market pork. Their meat is fine grained and tender, 
but inclined to be rather fat. 

Victoria Swine. — The Victoria breed of swine originated 
in Lake County, Indiana, as a result of crossing Poland- 
Chinas, Berkshires, Chester Whites, and a breed of 
white hogs from England. 

In color, Victoria swine are white, with occasional 
dark spots in the skin. The ears are erect or slightly 
drooping, and the animals have a good coat of fine, 
soft hair; the head is small and the face is medium 
dished; the bones are fine, and the back is straight, 
broad, and level. The Victorias are said to be prolific 



FARM LIVESTOCK 237 

hogs, easy to keep in condition, and are readily fattened 
at any age. They are of medium size; matvire sows 
should weigh about 450 lb. and mature boars about 600 lb. 

Essex Swine.— The Essex breed of swine originated in 
the county of Essex, England, as a result of crossing 
Neapolitan swine with the native hogs of Essex. It is 
thought also that Berkshire and Suffolk blood was 
used in the crossing. 

Essex swine are black; animals with white on them 
are not admitted to registry by the record association. 
They are small, compact animals, set on short legs. 
The face is dished, the snout short, and the shoulders 
and hams well developed. The animals are quick ma- 
turing, and easily fattened; the meat is fine grained, 
but carries an excessive quantity of fat. The breed 
does not stand very high in prolificacy'. 

BREEDS OF THE BACON TYPE 

Large Yorkshire Swine.— The Large Yorkshire breed of 
swine originated in England. For many years large, 
awkward, white swme have existed in certain parts of 
that coiuitry, particularly in Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, 
and Norfolk, and it is from these animals that the 
Large Yorkshires were developed. 

The hogs of this breed are white in color, with occa- 
sional blu-» spots on the skin. They are large in size, 
rangy, inclined to be long in the leg and coarse in bone, 
and are somewhat slow in coming to maturity. They 
have extreme length and depth of body, and their meat 
is well streaked with fat and lean, being especially 
desirable for bacon purposes. In fact, Yorkshire bacon 
is considered to be the best obtainable. 

Tamworth Swine.— The Tamworth breed of swine 
originated in central England, notably in the county of 
Stafford. The breed is one of the oldest in existence 
and the ancestry is obscure. 

The color of the Tamworths is somewhat variable, a 
golden-red hair on flesh-colored skin that is free from 



238 FARM LIVESTOCK 

black being preferred. The snout is very long and 
straight, the ears are large and pointed, and the legs 
are long. The animals have long, deep bodies and the 
meat from their carcasses is well fitted for bacon pur- 
poses. As compared with Poland-Chinas, Berkshires, 
and other animals of the lard type, they seem long 
and narrow. In constitution, they take high rank, being 
especially strong and vigorous. 

Hampshire Swine. — The Hampshire breed of swine, for- 
merly known as the Thin Rind breed, is indigenous to 
England. 

The Hampshire is a black animal with a broad white 
belt encircling the body and with white fore legs. The 
ears of Hampshires are erect, which, together with the 
peculiar marking of white, makes them easy to dis- 
tinguish from animals of other breeds. They have a 
rather long snoui and narrow face, and incline some- 
what to smallness of bone. 

The Hampshires can be fed to produce a good selling 
weight of hog at an early age, and by feeding to 
maturity they make good heavyweight hogs. As breeders, 
they are prolific and are said to have good constitutions. 



LIVESTOCK FEEDING 

COMPOSITION OF FEEDS 

It is a matter of common observation on farms that 
certain feeds tend to produce growth — the formation of 
bone, muscles, etc.; that other feeds tend to produce fat; 
and that still other feeds tend to produce milk. The 
reason for this lies in the difference in their compo- 
sition; therefore, a knowledge of the composition of a 
feed is a valuable guide in feeding livestock. Chemists 
have made five classes or groups into which all com- 
pounds that are found in feeds are placed. These 
classes are water, ash, protein, carbohydrates, and fat. 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



239 



The following tabulation shows the elements that make 
up the compounds of each class: 



Water {gydrogen 



Ash. 



Oxygen 
Sodium 
Potassium 
Calcium 
Magnesium 
Iron 

Manganese 
Sulphur 
Phosphorus 
Silicon 
Fluorine 
. Chlorine 



Protein. 



Carbon 
Hydrogen 
Oxygen 
Nitrogen 
Sulphur 
Phosphorus 
.Iron 



r Carbon 
Carbohydrates < Hydrogen 
I Oxygen 

f Carbon 

Fat < Hydrogen 

I Oxygen 



Water in Feeds.— All feeds contain water, although 
the more water a feed contains the smaller is its nu- 
tritive value. In young and growing plants the presence 
of water is readily apparent; it constitutes from 70 to 
90% of the total weight of such plants. Air-dried feeds, 
such as the grains, corn, wheat, and oats, and well-cured 
hays, contain on an average only from 8 to 15% of water. 

Ash in Feeds.— The mineral matter, or ash, of a feed 
is the portion that is left after complete burning; it is, 
therefore, the incombustible part. 

The common farm feeds contain but a small per- 
centage of ash, although the percentage varies greatly 
in different feeds. 

Potatoes contain .9% of ash; rutabagas, 1.2%; corn, 
1.5%; oats, 3.2%; timothy hay, 4.4%; Red clover hay, 
cut when the clover is in bloom, 6.6%; and alfalfa hay, 
8.6 to 10.6%. 

Protein in Feeds. — All plant and animal compounds 
that contain the element nitrogen are grouped into a 
class to which the term protein is applied. This is a 
very general term, and the number of compounds in- 
cluded in this group is exceedingly large. In addition 
to nitrogen, there are always found in protein the 



240 FARM LIVESTOCK 

elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and sometimes 
sulphur, phosphorus, and iron. Owing to the fact that 
nitrogen is found in all the compounds included in this 
class, they are often spoken of as nitrogenous com- 
pounds. 

The percentage of protein in the common feeds is 
given in the table showing the dry matter and digestible 
nutrients in 100 pounds of feedstuffs, printed on a subse- 
quent page. An examination of this table will show 
that the seeds of plants usually contain a higher per- 
centage of protein than the other parts of the plants. 
It will be learned, further, that by-products from mills 
and slaughter houses are rich in protein. 

Carbohydrates in Feeds.— Like protein, the term carbo- 
hydrate is a general one and is the name of a large 
group of compounds. All carbohydrates are alike, how- 
ever, in that they contain only the three elements, 
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are two general 
classes of carbohydrates, namely, crude fiber and 
nitrogen-free extract. Crude fiber constitutes the frame- 
work, or skeleton, of plants, such as the hard, woody 
portions of corn stalks and of straws. The husks of 
grains, such as oat hulls and corn and wheat bran, 
contain large quantities of this material; wood also is 
an example of crude fiber. Carbohydrates of the 
nitrogen-free-extract class are- much more valuable as 
sources of feed than are those of the crude-fiber class, 
because the former are more easily digested than the 
latter. Familiar examples of the nitrogen-free-extract 
compounds are corn starch and common sugar. 

Fat in Feeds. — The term fat, as it is used in connec- 
tion with feeds, applies to all true fats and oils, as well 
as to all other feed compounds that are soluble in ether, 
and because of this fact the terms ether extract and 
fat are vised synonymously in tables showing the com- 
position of feedstuffs. Although all feeds contain some 
fat, the percentage in feeds varies widely. 



FARM LIVESTOCK 241 



CLASSIFICATION OF FEEDS 

Feedstufifs can be conveniently divided into two gen- 
eral classes; concentrates and roughages. Roughages 
are also of two classes: dry and succulent. 

The concentrates include all grains, seeds, and by- 
products that are used as feeds. Feeds of this class 
yield a larger proportion of digestible nutrients than 
those of the other class. The proportion of concentrate 
feeds that should be supplied in a ration depends on the 
class of animal that is being fed and on whether or not 
the ration is merely one for maintenance or is a full 
ration. 

Three general classes of dry roughage are used as 
livestock feed. These are hays, straws, and fodders. 
As compared with the concentrates, all roughage feeds 
are more bulky in nature, less digestible, and, there- 
fore, are not so efficient as furnishers of materials for 
the production of energy, growth, fat, or milk. They 
usually are the stalks of the plants from which the 
seed has beeft removed. Their low digestibility is due 
to the large proportion of crude fiber, or woody matter, 
that they contain. Though ranking low in feed value, 
they constitute an essential and necessary part of every 
ration for all farm animals, except perhaps for pigs. 

On account of the difference in the digestive capacity 
of the animals, less roughage is used for horses and 
pigs than for ruminants. The abundance and the com- 
parative cheapness of roughage on most farms make it 
highly desirable that the feeder use all such feeds as 
completely as possible on the farm. 

Hays. — The hays represent the most valuable roughage 
for feeding purposes. They are of two classes, namely, 
leguminous and non-leguminous. The leguminous hays 
have, on an average, a higher feed value, are more di- 
gestible and usually more palatable when properly 
cured, and contain a larger proportion of protein than 
the non-leguminous hays. As leguminous hays contain 
16 



242 FARM LIVESTOCK 

more protein and less carbohydrates than non-leguminous 
hays, the former are particularly valuable when fed 
with corn or other feeds that contain small percentages 
of protein. The quantity of protein that leguminous hays 
contain guarantees a high fertilizing value to the 
manure of the animals to which the hays are fed. There 
can be no well-directed or wise system of cropping 
established on farms that does not include some legume 
in the crop rotation, and experience and scientific inves- 
tigation both indicate that leguminous hay should be 
fed on the farm where it is grown. 

Straws.— The straws are the lowest of the roughages 
in feed value. Their high content of crude fiber makes 
them hard to digest and reduces their palatability. 
However, straws are of some use as livestock feed. 
Ruminants that are to be carried through the winter 
on merely a maintenance ration can make large use 
of straw. Idle horses can also be fed some of this 
material to advantage. 

Fodders.— Most of the fodder available for livestock 
feed has its origin in the corn plant. Corn fodder, or 
fodder corn, is the entire corn plant after drying. Corn 
stover is corn fodder minus the ears. Shredded corn 
stover is corn stover that has been passed through a 
corn shredder. 

Soiling Crops.— The crops most valuable for soiling 
purposes ate field corn, sweet corn, sorghum, millets, 
rape, rye, oats, wheat, alfalfa, the clovers, cowpeas, 
soybeans, and vetch. It is desirable that these crops 
be fairly well matured before they are cut, as the im- 
mature plants are mostly water and often have an 
injurious effect on the digestive system of an animal. 

Silage.— Silage may be defined as feed which has been 
stored in such a manner that its green or fresh con- 
dition is preserved. Green clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, 
sorghum, and other forage crops have been stored suc- 
cessfully in the silo. But the great American crop 
preeminently suited for the making of silage is the 



FARM LIVESTOCK 243 

corn plant. Recent tests have shown that it is usually 
unprofitable to make silage out of a crop that can be 
successfully cured and stored in the mow without danger 
of excessive fermentation. The pithy stalk of the corn 
plant prevents it from drying and being handled in the 
same way as the hollow-stalked hays and straws. 

Root Crops. — The roots ordinarily grown for feed are 
mangels, sugar beets, rutabagas, and carrots. Horses 
prefer carrots; sheep, common turnips and rutabagas; 
and for cattle, mangels are very appropriate. In England 
and Scotland, roots are largely depended on for all 
classes of livestock, especially for cattle and sheep. In 
fact, in those countries roots constitute the greatest 
part of the daily rations for livestock; but in America 
roots are not grown extensively for the feeding of 
livestock. This is due chiefly to the labor required to 
grow and harvest a root crop, and to the fact that corn 
is so extensively grown and made into silage. 

BALANCED RATIONS 

Feeding Standards.— A feeding standard shows the 
experimentally established quantities of dry matter, 
digestible protein, digestible carbohydrates, and di- 
gestible fat that are necessary to satisfy the physio- 
logical requirements per day per 1,000 lb. of live weight 
of animals under specified conditions. 

Thus, the Wolff-Lehmann feeding standards given in 
the accompanying table show that a dairy cow weighing 
1,000 lb. and giving 22 lb. of milk should receive 29 lb. 
of dry matter, 2i/^ lb. of digestible protein, 13 lb. of 
digestible carbohydrates, and 14 lb. of digestible fat 
for each 24 hr. This standard is the result of experi- 
ment and scientific investigation, which has shown that 
a daily ration supplying the above quantities and kinds 
of digestible nutrients to a 1,000-lb. cow will maintain 
on an average, a milk flow of 22 lb. a day. All the 
other standards in the table have been derived in the 
same manner. 



244 FARM LIVESTOCK 

Nutritive Ratio.— A nutritive ratio is the ratio of the 
digestible protein to the digestible carbohydrates and 
fat in any feed or ration. In computing the nutritive 
ratio of a ration, the amount of digestible fat is multi- 
plied by 2.25 and the product added to the amount of 
digestible carbohydrates, and the sum divided by the 
amount of digestible protein. The ratio of one 
to the quotient is the nutritive ratio. To illustrate: 
What is the nutritive ratio of a ration furnishing 2.5 lb. 
of digestible protein, 15 lb. of digestible carbohydrates, 
and .5 lb. of digestible fat? 

The calculation is usually made as follows: .5x2.25 
= 1.125; 1.125 + 15 = 16.125; 16.125^2.5 = 6.45. The nutritive 
ratio is, therefore, 1 part of protein to 6.45 parts of 
carbohydrates and fat, or 1 : 6.45. 

Note.— Some authorities on feeding multiply the quan- 
tity of fat by 2.4 in computing a nutritive ratio, but 
recent experiments and investigations show that 2.25 is 
a more nearly correct factor to use. 

The nutritive ratio is wide or narrow according to the 
proportion of protein that the ration contains. If the 
relative amount of protein in a ration is large, it is 
said to have a narrow nutritive ratio, and if the relative 
amount of protein is small it is said to have a wide 
nutritive ratio. A ratio of 1 to 5.5 or less is considered 
narrow; a ratio of 1 to 8 and above is considered wide; 
between these two the nutritive ratio is medium. Young 
growing animals generally and cows giving milk need 
a large amount of protein, and should therefore receive 
a ration that has a narrow nutritive ratio. Fattening 
animals thrive well on wide rations, but pregnant 
animals and horses at work should receive rations of a 
medium nutritive ratio. 



FARM LIVESTOCK 245 

WOLFF-LEHMANN FEEDING STANDARDS 



Animal 



Oxen: 

At rest in stall 

At light work 

At medium work 

At heavy work 

Fattening cattle: 

First period 

Second period 

Third period 

Milk cows when yielding 
daily: 

11.0 1b. of milk 

16.6 lb. of milk 

22.0 lb. of milk 

27.5 lb. of milk 

Sheep: 

Coarse-wool 

Fine-wool 

Breeding ewes with 

lambs 

Fattening sheep: 

First period 

Second period 

Horses: 

At light work , 

At medium work 

At heavy work 

Brood sows , 

Fattening swine: 

First period 

Second period 

Third period 



Requirements per Day per 
1,000 Lb. Live Weight 



^ o 

u ^ 

Q 



Digestible Nutrients 



.7 
1.4 
2.0 

2.8 

2.5 
3.0 

2.7 



1.6 
2.0 
2.5 
3.3 

1.2 
1.5 

2.9 

3.0 
3.5 

1.5 
2.0 
2.5 
2.5 

4.5 
4.0 
2.7 



n3 



8.0 
10.0 
11.5 
13.0 

15.0 
14.5 
15.0 



10.0 
11.0 
13.0 
13.0 

10.5 
12.0 

15.0 

15.0 
14.5 

9.5 
11.0 
13.3 
15.5 

25.0 
24.0 
18.0 



to 



246 



FARM LIVESTOCK 
Table — (Continued) 





Requirements per Day per 
1,000 Lb. Live Weight 




1. 

Q 


Digestible Nutrients 


Animal 


II 

<u o 


li 
f 


^1 


is 
II 


Growing cattle — Dairy 
breeds: 

Age, 2 to 3 mo.; average 
live weight, 1501b.. . . 

Age, 3 to 6 mo. ; average 
live weight, 300 lb.. . 

Age, 6 to 12 mo.; aver- 
age live weight, 500 
lb. 


23 
24 

27 

26 

26 

23 
24 

25 

24 

24 


4.0 
3.0 

2.0 

1.8 

1.5 

4.2 
3.5 

2.5 

2.0 

1.8 


13.0 
12.8 

12.5 

12.5 

12.0 

13.0 
12.8 

13.2 

12.5 

12.0 


2.0 
1.0 

.5 

.4 

.3 

2.0 
1.5 

.7 

.5 

.4 


1 to 4.4 
1 to 5.0 

1 to 6.8 


Age, 12 to 18 mo.; aver- 
age live weight, 700 
lb 


1 to 7.4 


Age, 18 to 24 mo.; aver- 
age live weight, 900 
lb 


1 to 8.5 


Growing cattle— Beef 
breeds: 

Age, 2 to 3 mo. ; average 
live weight, 160 lb. . . 

Age, 3 to 6 mo.; average 
live weight, 330 lb. . . 

Age, 6 to 12 mo; aver- 
age live weight, 550 
lb 


1 to 4.2 
1 to 4.6 

1 to 5.9 


Age, 12 to 18 mo.; aver- 
age live weight, 750 
lb 


1 to 6.8 


Age, 18 to 24 mo.; aver- 
age live weight, 950 


1 to 7.2 







FARM LIVESTOCK 
Table — (Continued) 



247 





Requirements per Day per 
1,000 Lb. Live Weight 




S3 


Digestible Nutrients 


Animal 


<D O 
-§ Ah 

o 


6 


4 


1.2 


Growing sheep — Wool 
breeds: 

Age, 4 to 6 mo. ; average 
live weight, 60 lb 

Age, 6 to 8 mo. ; average 
live weight, 75 lb 

Age, 8 to 11 mo.; aver- 
age live weight, 80 lb. 

Age, 11 to 15 mo.; aver- 
age live weight, 90 lb. 

Age, 15 to 20 mo.; aver- 
age live weight, 100 

lb 

Growing sheep — Mutton 
breeds: 

Age. 4 to 6 mo. ; average 
live weight, 60 lb. ... 

Age, 6 to 8 mo. ; average 
live weight, 80 lb 

Age, 8 to 11 mo.; aver- 
age live weight, 100 
lb. 


25 
25 
23 
22 

22 

26 

26 

24 
23 
22 


3.4 
2.8 
2.1 
1.8 

1.5 

4.4 
3.5 

3.0 

2.2 

2.0 


15.4 
13.8 
11.5 
11.2 

10.8 

15.5 
lo.O 

14.3 

12.6 

12.0 


.7 
.6 
.5 
.4 

3 

.9 
.7 

.5 

.5 

.4 


1 to 5.0 
1 to 5.4 
1 to 6.0 
1 to 6.7 

1 to 7.7 

1 to 4.0 
1 to 4.7 

1 to 5 1 


Age, 11 to 15 mo.; aver- 
age live weight, 120 
lb. 


1 to 6 2 


Age 15 to 20 mo. ; aver- 
age live weight, 150 
lb 


1 to 6.5 







248 



FARM LIVESTOCK 

Tab-le— (Continued) 





Requriements 


per Day per 






1,000 Lb. Live Weight 




^ ^ 

rt ^ 


Digestible Nutrients 


Animal 


a 


^ 








1 § 




t "= 


v> 


> 




Q 


s 

o 


11 

6 


2| 


Vs. 


Growing swine — Breeding 












stock: 












Age, 2 to 3 mo. ; average 












live weight, 50 lb. . . . 


44 


7.6 


28.0 


1.0 


1 to 4.0 


Age, 3 to 5 mo. ; average 












live weight, 100 lb.. . 


35 


4.8 


22.5 


.7 


1 to 5.0 


Age, 5 to 6 mo.; average 












live weight, 120 lb.. . 


32 


3.7 


21.3 


.4 


1 to 6.0 


Age, 6 to S mo. ; average 












live weight, 200 lb.. . 


28 


2.8 


18.7 


.3 


1 to 6.9 


Age, 8 to 12 mo.; aver- 












age Hve weight, 250 












lb 


25 


2.1 


15.3 


.2 


1 to 7.5 


Growing fattejiing swine: 




Age, 2 to 3 mo. ; average 












live weight, 50 lb. . . . 


44 


7.6 


28.0 


1.0 


1 to 4.0 


Age, 3 to 5 mo. ; average 












live weight, 100 lb. . . 


35 


5.0 


23.1 


.8 


1 to 5.0 


Age, 5 to 6 mo. ; average 












live weight, 150 lb.. . 


33 


4.3 


22.3 


.6 


1 to 5.5 


Age, 6 to 8 mo.; average 












live weight, 200 lb.. . 


30 


3.6 


20.5 


.4 


1 to 5.9 


Age, 9 to 12 mo.; aver- 












age live weight, 300 












lb 


26 


3.0 


18.3 


.3 


1 to 6.3 







FARM LIVESTOCK 



249 



Making Up a Balanced Ration.— By the aid of the 

accompanying table giving the total dry matter and 
the digestible nutrients contained in 100 lb. of the 
different feedstuffs, and the number of pounds of each 
of the digestible nutrients, the nutritive ratio may be 
determined of almost any ration that may be fed. The 
value of such determinations to the feeder is not only to 
acquaint him with the wide variations in the demands 
and requirements of the different classes of livestock, 
but to increase his knowledge of the chemical com- 
position of feeds. With a knowledge of feeding 
standards and of the composition of feeds a stockman 
is enabled to combine feeds so that they satisfy the 
needs of animals, or, in other words, to feed a balanced 
ration. This is the first and a most fundamental prin- 
ciple of feeding. 

TOTAL DRY MATTER AND TOTAL DIGESTIBLE 

NUTRIENTS IN 100 LB. OF COMMON 

AMERICAN FEEDSTUFFS 



Feedstuff 



Total 

Dry 

Matter 

in 100 
Lb. 



Digestible Nutrients 
in 100 Lb. 






Alfalfa hay 

Alsike clover, green. ... 

Alsike-clover hay 

Artichokes 

Barley and peas, green. 
Barley and vetch, green 

Barley forage 

Barley grain 

Barley hay 

Barley screenings 

Barley straw 



93.4 
25.2 
90.3 
20.5 
20.0 
20.0 
21.0 
89.2 
85.0 
87.8 
85.8 



8.4 
1.3 
2.1 
2.1 
1.9 
8.4 
5.7 
9.5 



40.0 
11.4 
39.7 
14.7 
9.1 
6.5 
10.4 
65.3 
43.6 
49.9 
40.1 



1.3 

.5 

1.1 

.2 

.4 

.3 

.3 

1.6 

1.0 

2.5 

.6 



250 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



Table- 


—(Continued) 








Total 

Dry 

Matter 

in 100 
Lb. 


Digestible Nutrients 
in 100 Lb. 


Feedsttiff 


S § 


1 ^ w 


^-3 

^1 


Barnyard millet, green 

Barnyard millet hay 

Bean, horse, green 


25.0 
85.1 
15.8 
90.8 
17.8 
90.0 
88.7 
91.6 
10.2 
11.5 
13.5 
90.8 
28.3 
93.1 
94.0 
90.6 
88.1 
91.3 
23.0 
87.2 
91.8 
86.6 
90.1 
85.0 
91.0 
9.9 
10.0 
85.0 
15.3 
11.4 
34.0 
88.0 
89.0 

87.1 
25.4 
11.5 
20.0 
84.9 


1.6 
5.2 
2.3 
4.3 
2.7 
9.6 

23.1 
4.1 
.5 
1.2 
1.3 
6.8 
1.3 
6.4 

36.7 
6.0 

11.9 

20.0 
4.9 
4.6 
5.9 
8.1 
1.2 
3.0 
8.2 
3.8 
2.3 

19.7 

1.8 

.8 

.8 

.4 

7.2 

5.8 

17.6 

1.2 

.8 

4.4 


14.4 

.38.6 

7.3 

39.5 

8.4 

52.5 

49.8 

64.9 

7.7 

7.9 

9.8 

42.8 

13.4 

44.9 

5.5 

52.5 

42.0 

32.2 

7.6 

42.2 

34.0 

48.2 

37.4 

42.0 

39.0 

3.9 

5.9 

49.3 

6.9 

7.7 

28.9 

74.0 

41.6 

41.8 

2.7 

7.9 

11.0 

60.0 


.3 

.8 
.2 


Bean, horse, hay 


.8 


Bean, velvet, green 

Bean, velvet, hay 


.4 
1.4 




.8 


Beet pulp, dry 








Beets, common 


.1 


Beets, sugar 


.1 


Beggar-weed hay 


1.6 


Bermuda grass, green 

Bermuda-grass hay 

Bone-and-meat meal 


.4 

1.6 

10.6 

4.8 


Bran, wheat, all analyses . . 

Brewers' grains, dry 

Brewers' grains, wet 


2.5 
6.0 
1.7 
1.5 


Buckwheat bran 


2.0 


Buckwheat, grain 


2.4 
.5 


Buffalo-grass hay 


1.6 


Bur-clover hay. . 

Buttermilk 


2.1 
1.0 


Cabbage 






.4 


Canada field peas, green . . . 


.3 
,3 


Cassava 


.2 


Cassava starch refuse 

Cattail-millet hay 

Clover and grass, mixed, 
hay 


.6 
1.0 

1.3 




3.6 


Common beets 




Common millet, green 

Com-and-cob meal 


.2 
2.9 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



251 



Table — (Continued) 



Feedstuff 



Corn bran 

Com, dent, grain 

Com, flint, grain 

Corn fodder, ears on 

Com leaves 

Com meal 

Com stover, ears removed 

Cottonseed 

Cottonseed hulls 

Cottonseed meal 

Cowpeas, green 

Cowpea hay 

Cowpea seeds 

Crimson clover, green 

Crimson-clover hay 

Distillers' grains, dry. . . . 

Dried blood 

Dwarf Essex rape 

Emmer, grain 

Emmer hay 

English hay 

Field -bean hay 

Field peas, Canada, green 

Flaxseed 

Flax shives 

Germ oil meal 

Gluten feed 

Hairy Vetch, winter, hay. 
Hay from mixed grasses. . 

Hog millet, green 

Hominy chop 

Hominy feed 

Horse bean, green 

Horse-bean hay 

Horse-beans 

Hungarian -grass hay 

Italian rye-grass hay 

Japan-clover hay 

Japanese millet, green . . . 



Total 

Dry 

Matter 

in 100 
Lb. 



90.6 
89.4 
88.7 
57.8 
70.0 
85.0 
59.5 
89.7 
88.9 
93.0 
16.4 
89.5 
85.4 
19.1 
90.4 
92.4 
91.5 
14.3 
91.6 
93.1 
86.0 
95.0 
15.3 
90.8 
90.0 
91.4 
90.8 
88.7 
84.7 
20.0 
90.4 
90.4 
15.8 
90.8 
88.7 
86.0 
91.5 
89.0 
25.0 



Digestible Nutrients 
in 100 Lb. 






6.0 

7.8 

8.0 

2.5 

2.8 

6.7 

1.4 

12.5 

.3 

37.6 

1.8 

5.8 

16.8 

2.4 

10.5 

22.8 

60.8 

2.0 

10.0 

7.0 

4.5 

3.6 

1.8 

20.6 

1.2 

15.8 

21.3 

11.9 

4.2 



6.8 
2.3 
4.3 
23.1 
5.0 
4.5 
9.1 
1.1 






52.5 
66.8 
66.2 
34.6 
37.8 
64.3 
31.2 
30.0 
33.2 
21.4 
8.7 
9.3 
54.9 
9.1 
34.9 
39.7 

8.2 
70.3 
43.9 
44.0 
39.7 

6.9 
17.1 
34.4 
38.8 
52.8 
40.7 
42.0 
10.8 
60.5 
60.5 

7.3 
39.5 
49.8 
46.9 
43.4 
37.7 
13.6 



252 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



Table — (Continued) 



Feedstuff 



Total 

Dry 
Matter 
in 100 

Lb. 



Digestible Nutrients 
in 100 Lb. 



u o 



cats 5 



Johnson grass, green 

Johnson-grass hay 

Kafir corn, grain 

Kafir corn, heads, ground. . 

Kafir corn. Red, green 

Kafir corn, White, green. . . . 

Kentucky blue grass 

Kentucky blue-grass hay. . . 
Linseed meal, new-process. . 
Linseed meal, old -process. . . 

Malt sprouts 

Mammoth-clover hay 

Mangels 

Meadow fescue, green 

Meadow-fescue hay 

Meadow-foxtail hay 

Meat-and-bone meal 

Meat scrap 

Milk, cow's, whole 

Milk, cow's, skim 

Millet seed 

Millet straw 

Milo maize, heads, ground. 

Milo maize, seed 

Mixed grass and clover hay. 
Molasses, beet, pulp, dry. . . 

Molasses grains 

Molasses, Porto Rico 

Molasses, sugar-beet 

Oat and pea hay 

Oat and vetch hay 

Oat hay 

Oat meal 

Oat middlings 

Oat straw 

Oats and peas, green 

Oats and vetch, green 

Oats, grain 

Orchard-grass hay 



25.0 
89.8 
90.1 
86.4 
18.4 
16.6 
34.9 
86.0 
90.3 
90.2 
90.5 
78.8 

9.1 
30.1 
80.8 
93.4 
94.0 
89.3 
12.8 

9.4 
87.9 
85.0 
90.3 
91.0 
87.1 
92.0 
89.6 
74.1 
79.2 
89.5 
85.0 
86.0 
92.1 
91.2 
90.8 
20.3 
20.0 
89.6 
90.1 



2.9 
5.2 
4.2 



2.8 

4.4 

31.5 

30.2 

20.3 

6.2 

1.0 

1.6 

4.2 

5.3 

36.7 

66.2 

3.4 

2.9 

7.1 

.9 

4.2 

4.9 

5.8 

6.1 

10.8 

1.4 

4.7 

7.6 

8.3 

4.7 

11.9 

13.1 

1.3 

1.8 

2.3 

10.7 

4.9 



13.7 
45.6 
44.3 
42.4 

9.7 

8.3 
19.7 
40.2 
35.7 
32.0 
46.0 
34.7 

5.5 
18.6 
36.9 
41.0 

5.5 

4.8 
5.3 
48.5 
34.3 
45.0 
44.8 
41.8 
68.7 
48.0 
59.2 
54.1 
41.5 
35.8 
36.7 
65.1 
57.7 
39.5 
10.2 
10.0 
50.3 
42.4 



FARM LIVESTOCK 
Table — (Continued) 



253 



FeedstuflE 



Total 

Dry 

Matter 

in 100 
Lb. 



Digestible Nutrients 
in 100 Lb. 



I g 






Oxeye-daisy hay. . . 

Palmnut cake 

Parsnips 

Pea and oat hay 

Peanut cake 

Peanut kernels, without 

hulls 

Peanut-vine hay 

Perennial rye-grass hay . . . . 

Potato 

Prairie hay 

Pumpkin, field 

Pumpkin, garden 

Rape-seed cake 

Red clover, green 

Red-clover hay 

Red-dog flour 

Red-top hay 

Rice, grain 

Rowen hay 

Rutabagas 

Rye bran 

Rye forage 

Rye, grain 

Rye-grass hay. Perennial. . . 

Rye-grass hay, Italian 

Rye straw 

Sage, Common 

Salt-marsh-grass hay 

Sanfoin hay 

Serradella, green 

Serradella hay 

Sesame oil cake 

Shorts 

Silage, corn 

Silage, com, ears removed. . 

Sorghum seed 

Soybean hay 

Soybean seeds 



89.7 
89.6 
9.5 
89.5 
89.3 

92.5 
92.4 
86.0 
20.9 
90.8 
9.1 
13.2 
90.0 
29.2 
84.7 
90.1 
91.1 
87.6 
86.0 
11.4 
88.2 
23.4 
91.3 
86.0 
91.5 
92.9 
50.4 
89.6 
85.0 
20.5 
90.8 
92.6 
88.8 
26.4 
26.3 
87.2 
88.2 
88.3 



3.7 

16.0 

1.0 

7.6 

42.8 

25.1 
6.7 
6.1 
1.1 
3.0 
1.0 
1.4 

25.3 
2.9 
7.1 

16.2 
4.8 
6.4 
7.9 
1.0 

11.2 
2.1 
9.5 
6.1 
4.5 
.7 
1.2 
3.1 

10.4 
2.1 

11.4 

33.0 

13.0 
1.4 
1.1 
4.5 

10.6 

29.1 



41.0 
52.6 
7.2 
41.5 
20.4 

13.7 
42.2 
37.8 
15.7 
42.9 

5.8 

8.3 
23.7 
14.9 
37.8 
57.0 
46.9 
79.2 
42.2 

8.1 
46.8 
14.1 
69.4 
37.8 
43.4 
39.6 
14.1 
39.7 
36.5 

8.9 
38.6 
10.9 
45.7 
14.2 
14.9 
61.1 
40.9 
23.3 



254 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



Tab le — (Continued) 



Feedstuff 



Total 

Dry 

Matter 

in 100 
Lb. 



Digestible Nutrients 
in 100 Lb. 



■5 c 
2 g 

Ph (X, 



Soybean straw 

Spelt , grain 

Spelt, hay 

Spring vetch, green 

Sugar beets 

Sugar-beet leaves 

Sugar-beet molasses 

Sugar cane; green 

Sunflower seed 

Sunflower-seed cake 

Swamp-grass hay 

Sweet clover, green 

Sweet-clover hay 

Sweet corn, grain 

Sweet potatoes 

Tall-oat hay 

Tankage 

Teosinte, green 

Texas blue-grass hay 

Timothy grass 

Timothy hay, all analyses. 

Turnips, flat 

Velvet -bean hay 

Vetch and barley, green . . 

Vetch and oat hay 

Vetch and oats, green 

Vetch and wheat, hay .... 

Vetch, green 

Vetch, Hairy, winter, green 
Wheat and vetch, green. . . 

Wheat and vetch hay 

Wheat bran, all analyses. . 

Wheat, grain 

Wheat screenings 

Wheat straw 

Whey 

White-clover hay 

White-top hay 

Wild-oat grass hay 



89.9 
92.0 
93.1 
15.0 
13.5 
12.0 
79.2 
15.8 
91.4 
89.2 
88.4 
20.0 
90.9 
91.2 
28.9 
86.0 
93.0 

9.9 
85.7 
38.4 
86.8 

9.9 
90.0 
20.0 
85.0 
20.0 
85.0 
15.0 
15.0 
20.0 
85.0 
88.1 
89.5 
88.4 
90.4 

6.2 
90.3 
86.0 
85.9 



2.3 

10.0 

7.0 

1.9 

1.3 

1.9 

4.7 

.5 

14.8 

29.5 

4.0 

2.5 

11.9 

8.8 

.8 

3.3 

50.1 

.9 

5.1 

1.5 

2.8 

.9 

9.6 

2.1 

8.3 

2.3 

10.6 

1.9 

2.8 

2.6 

10.6 

11.9 

8.8 



11.5 

5.8 
2.9 



40.1 

70.3 

43.9 

6.6 

9.8 

5.0 

54.1 

9.5 

29.7 

23.3 

38.9 

8.4 

36.7 

63.7 

22.9 

41.4 

4.9 
36.3 
19.9 
42.4 

6.4 
52.5 

6.5 
35.8 
10.0 
36.8 

6.6 

6.4 
10.3 
36.8 
42.0 
67.5 
48.2 
35.2 

5.0 
42.2 
40.6 
48.7 



FARM LIVESTOCK 255 

RATIONS FOR DIFFERENT CLASSES OF 
LIVESTOCK 

Ration for Draft Horses.— As an average for draft 
horses at moderate work, a good plan to follow is to 
feed 1 lb. of grain and VA lb. of hay per day per 
100 lb. of live weight of the horse. At this rate, a 
1,600-lb. horse would receive 16 lb. of grain and 20 lb. of 
hay per day. If the work is severe, the quantity of 
grain should be increased to 1^ lb. or more per 100 lb. 
of live weight of the horse, but should not exceed 
11/3 lb. When a heavy grain ration is fed it may be 
necessary to feed a slightly smaller quantity of hay, 
but this should not be less than 1 lb. per 100 lb. of live 
weight; the exact quantity must be determined largely 
by the individuality and appetite of each horse. When 
a heavy grain ration is being -fed it should be slightly 
reduced as soon as the work slackens. 

The grain ration should be divided into three equal 
feeds and given morning, noon, and night. The greater 
part of the hay should be fed to the horses in the 
evening, as they will then have all night in which to 
consume and digest it; about one-quarter should be fed 
in the morning and one-sixth or less at noon, the 
quantity for each feed depending on the time allowed 
for the horses to eat. 

In selecting the kind of grain for the ration of a 
draft horse, the feeder should be guided by the kind of 
hay used and the cheapness of the ration; a larger 
quantity of corn can be economically and satisfactorily 
used in a ration with clover or alfalfa hay than with 
prairie or timothy hay. Also, the ration should contain 
enough digestible protein to meet the requirements of 
the horse. A ration consisting of ^ part of corn, Ys 
part of oats, and Vq part of bran, by weight, and 
a mixture of timothy and alfalfa or clover hay, or of 
prairie hay and alfalfa or clover, will give satisfactory 



256 FARM LIVESTOCK 

results. For a 1,600-lb. horse at moderate work, a ration 
of this proportion would be as follows: 

Pounds 

Com 8 

Oats 51 

Bran 2§ 

Timothy or prairie hay 10 

Clover or alfalfa hay 10 

Rations for Driving and Saddle Horses.— An ample 
ration for a driving or a saddle horse at severe work is 
1 lb. of good hay and IVs lb. of grain per 100 lb. of 
live weight of the animal. At this rate a 1,200-lb. horse 
would receive 12 lb. of hay and 16 lb. of grain per day. 
Most of the hay' should be fed at night and but little 
given in the morning before the horse is put at work. 
The grain should be divided into three equal parts and 
given morning, noon, and night. 

For extremely severe work, such as racing, less hay 
should be given than for common road work; most of 
the nutrients should be supplied by grain, oats being 
best. About % lb. of hay per 100 lb. of live weight 
of the animal should be given, most of it being fed at 
the evening feed. 

Ration for Pregnant Mares.— A good grain ration for 
a mare that is just past the seventh month of preg- 
nancy and is being worked is as follows: Ground oats, 
by weight, 4 parts; corn, 2 parts; wheat bran, 2 parts; 
alfalfa or clover hay, 1% lb. per 100 lb. of live weight. 

Rations for Mares After Parturition.— For about 3 
da. after foaling, mares should have a light grain feed 
of oats and bran, and good clean hay, preferably clover 
or alfalfa. The ration should be light, as a colt does 
not need a large supply of milk the first few days of 
its life. If, at the end of 3 to 4 da. the mare and 
foal are in good condition, the ration should be gradually 
increased in order to stimulate the flow of milk. 

A mare that is working and suckling a foal requires 
a little heavier ration than is usually prescribed for 



FARM LIVESTOCK 257 

work horses, owing to the fact that she is producing 
milk in addition to supplying energy for work. The 
ration should be a highly nutritious one that will pro- 
duce a good flow of milk; for this purpose good alfalfa 
or clover hay fed in conjunction with corn and oats 
is desirable. If good alfalfa or clover hay is not avail- 
able, some linseed meal or cottonseed meal should be 
added to the ration. Ordinarily, Ws lb. of grain and 
VA lb. of hay per 100 lb. of live weight will be sufficient, 
although it may be necessary to increase the grain to 
V/i lb. per 100 lb. of live weight if the mare shows 
signs of getting in poor condition. When such a grain 
ration is fed it is a good plan to mix the grain with 
chopped hay in order to prevent any serious digestive 
disturbances. 

Ration for Stallions.— The sexual tax on a stallion 
during the breeding season makes it necessary that he 
be fed a highly nitrogenous ration, as the principal 
part of the seminal fluid is composed of albuminous 
matter. During this time there is nothing better to 
feed than good clover or alfalfa hay, with oats and 
bran and a very little corn.: A grain ration com- 
posed of 2 parts of oats, 1 part of corn, and 1 part of 
bran, by weight, combined with a roughage ration of 
1 part of alfalfa hay and 1 part of timothy or prairie 
hay will give satisfactory results. Because of the low 
protein content of corn, a large quantity should not be 
fed. During the breeding season a stallion requires 
about the same quantity of feed as horses at hard 
work. 

Rations for Dairy Cattle.— The efficiency of the dairy 
cow depends to a large extent on the feeding of a ration 
adapted to the production of milk and butter fat. The 
following rations are offered as suggestions to be 
modified to suit individual conditions. With these 
rations as a guide, a dairyman can easily make up from 
the feedstuffs he has available an economical and 
satisfactory ration for the cows of his herd. 
17 



258 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



Rations Pounds 

No. 1: 

Mixed hay 20 

Dried distillers' 

grains 4 

Hominy chop 2 

Wheat bran 2 

No. 2: 

Mixed hay 10 

Corn silage 40 

Gluten feed 4 

Corn meal 2 

Wheat bran 2 

No. 3: 

Mixed hay 15 

Mangels 40 

Cottonseed meal 2 

Hominy chop 4 

Wheat bran 2 



No. 4: 

Mixed hay 10 

Dried beet pulp 5 

Cottonseed meal 2 

Hominy chop 4 

Wheat bran 2 



Rations Pounds 

No. 5: 
Clover or alfalfa hay 15 

Corn silage 25 

Oats 3 

Wheat bran 3 

Buckwheat middlings 3 

No. 6: 

Timothy hay 10 

Corn silage 40 

Dried distillers' 

grains 4 

Cottonseed meal 2 

Hominy chop or 
corn meal 2 

No. 7: 

Timothy hay 10 

Corn silage 40 

Gluten feed 4 

Linseed meal 3 

Hominy chop or 
corn meal 1 

No. 8: 

Alfalfa hay 20 

Corn 3 

Oats 3 

Wheat bran 2 



Rations for the Fattening of Cattle.— The following 
are samples of satisfactory daily rations for the fat- 
tening of cattle under corn-belt conditions: 



Rations Pounds 

No. 1: 

Ear corn 20 

Oil meal 3 

Clover hay 8 

No. 2: 

Shelled corn 18 

Oil meal 3 

Clover hay 9 

No. 3: 

Ear corn 14 

Oil meal 1.5 

Shock corn 14 

Clover hay 8 



Rations Pounds 

No. 4: 

Ear corn 18 

Cottonseed meal 1 

Alfalfa hay 10 

No. 5: 

Ear corn 15 

Corn silage 25 

Alfalfa hay 5 

No. 6: 

Ear corn 16 

Cottonseed meal — 3 

Corn silage 32 

No. 7: 

Alfalfa hay 5 

Corn stover 5 

Corn 18 



FARM LIVESTOCK 259 

Ration for Unweaned Pigs.— During the time pigs are 
running with their mothers they should have a rather 
narrow grain ration. The following materials mixed in 
the proportion given have been found by experience to 
be well suited for suckling pigs: 

Parts 

Corn meal 2 

Wheat middlings 7 

Tankage 1 

Skim-milk 30 

These materials are mixed together to form a medium 
thick slop, and are fed soon after being mixed. Of 
this mixture the pigs are fed just what they will clean 
up with a relish. No feed should be left in the troughs 
to become sour. If skim-milk cannot be procured, pure, 
fresh water may be substituted. 

Rations for Pigs After Weaning.— After weaning the 
pigs, the first ration given may be continued until they 
reach an age of about 4 mo. From the fourth to the 
sixth month, the following proportions may be used: 

Parts 

Corn meal 5 

Wheat middlings 4 

Tankage 1 

Skim-milk 30 

From 6 mo. up to the time the pigs are marketed, the 
following proportions are used: 

Parts 

Corn meal 4 

Tankage 1 

This mixture is either fed dry or made into a thick 
mush by the addition of skim-milk, whey, or water. If 
fed dry, an abundance of pure, fresh water should be 
placed where the pigs can get it at will. 

Other mixtures that will give about the same propor- 
tion of nutrients may be substituted for the preceding 
rations. Hogs welcome a variety in food as well as do 
other animals. 



260 FARM LIVESTOCK 

Succulent Feed for Fattening Hogs.— In addition to 
rations given in the preceding paragraphs, young pigs 
need some kind of succulent feed. In summer this 
succulent feed can best be derived from pasture. Ani- 
mals running on pasture require less attention from 
their caretakers than do animals that are being fed in 
a lot, for the reason that they gather a large part of 
their feed themselves. The exercise that the pigs get 
in searching for food in a pasture tends to give them 
a good appetite and to keep them healthy. 

Rations for Bacon Hogs.— Rations for producing bacon 
hogs should be somewhat narrower than those required 
for fat hogs. In the corn belt, bacon hogs for the first 
month or two after birth should be fed about the same 
ration as that given for unweaned pigs of the lard type. 
The finishing ration, however, should be different from 
that for fat hogs. A mixture of corn, other grains, mill 
feed, tankage, skim-milk, and pasture crops makes a 
satisfactory ration for bacon pigs. Corn should not, how- 
ever, form more than one-third of the concentrated part of 
the ration. Outside of the corn belt where barley, peas, 
and oats are grown, these grains mixed with shorts, 
middlings, tankage, and skim-milk give good results. For 
summer, alfalfa, clover, or some other pasture for the pro- 
duction of green forage is desirable. If the hogs are kept 
and fed during winter, mangel wurzels, sugar beets, or 
turnips may form the succulent part of the ration. 

Rations for Herd Boars.— The boar or boars of a 
breeding herd of swine should be placed in pastures or 
lots by themselves, where they will have plenty of 
room in which to exercise, as this has a tendency to keep 
their appetite vigorous. They should be supplied with 
abundant water, and it is well to have a quantity of 
charcoal available. The feed for aged animals should 
consist of a slop composed of a mixture of different 
ground grains and mill feeds, enough only being fed 
to the animals to keep them in fair flesh. A ration that 
has been found satisfactory consists of the following: 



FARM LIVESTOCK 261 

Parts 

Ground oats 2 

Corn meal 1 

Wheat middlings 1 

For each mess, a small quantity of salt and a 
handful of linseed meal may be added to this ration, 
and these should be mixed together with sweet skim- 
milk to form a slop. Only as much of this mixture as 
the boar will eat with a relish should be given at 
one time. 

Young boars during their first half year should be 
given enough of a ration consisting of mixed mill feed 
and grain to keep them in rapid growth. This means 
that the quantity given at a meal should be all that 
they will eat with a relish. 

Rations for Brood Sows.— The feed for a brood sow 
should be similar to that recommended for young pigs. 
The following combination for the concentrated part of 
the ration has been found to be satisfactory: 

Parts 

Corn meal 5 

Middlings or ground oats 5 

Tankage 1 

This ration may be fed either dry or mixed with 
water. If the sows are being fed during the winter, 
some bulky feed should be added to the above list. 
Well-cured alfalfa or clover hay will prove to be a 
good feed. If such hay cannot be procured, sugar beets 
or mangel wurzels may be used. In the absence of all 
these, sorghum cane that has been cut when ripe and 
placed where it is protected from frost will answer. 

A brood sow carrying a litter during the summer 
should be placed on good alfalfa or clover pasture. She 
will then require no other bulky feed than that which 
she can gather. The preceding mixed ration may be 
fed to the sow if it is easily procurable, but if the 
pasture is an exceedingly good one, ear corn alone will 
answer as the grain part of the ration. 



262 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



Rations for Pregnant Ewes.— Several rations for preg- 
nant ewes weighing from 140 to 160 lb. that are not on 
pasture arc ^iven in the accompanying list: 



Rations Pounds 

No. 1: 
Shelled corn or oats .4 

Wheat bran 1 

Corn silage 2.0 

or root crops 3.0 

Clover hay 2.0 

No. 2: 

Shelled corn or oats .4 

Wheat bran 1 

Corn silage 2.0 

or root crops 3.0 

Alfalfa hay 2.0 

No. 3: 

Shelled corn or oats .4 

Corn silage '2.0 

or root crops 3.0 

Soybean hay 2.5 

No. 4: 
Oats or shelled corn .4 

Wheat bran 1 

Corn silage 2.0 

or root crops 3.0 

Corn fodder 1.0 

Clover or alfalfa 
hay 1.5 

No. 5: 

Shelled corn 4 

Wheat bran 1 

Corn silage 2.0 

or root crops 3.0 

Oat or wheat straw 1.0 
Clover or alfalfa 

hay 1.5 



Rations Pounds 

No. 6: 

Shelled corn 3 

Oats 2 

Wheat bran 2 

Clover, alfalfa, or 
soybean hay 2.2 

No. 7: 

Shelled corn 2 

Oats 2 

Wheat bran 2 

Oil meal 5 

Corn fodder 1.0 

Clover, alfalfa, or 
soybean hay 2.0 

No. 8: 

Shelled corn 2 

Oats 3 

Wheat bran 2 

Oil meal 1 

Corn fodder 3.0 

No. 9: 

Shelled corn 3 

Oats 2 

Wheat bran 2 

Oil meal 1 

Oat or wheat straw 1.5 

No. 10: 

Shelled corn 2 

Oats 2 

Wheat bran 1 

Oil meal 1 

Corn silage 2.5 

or root crops 3.8 

Corn fodder 2.5 

or oat straw 1.0 



Rations for Ewes With Suckling Lambs.— In the ac- 
companying table are given a number of rations for 
ewes with suckling lambs. 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



263 



SUGGESTED DAILY RATIONS FOR EWES WITH 
SUCKLING LAMBS 



Kind of Feed 



No. of Ration 



No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No 



Mixture of: 

Shelled corn, 5 parts 

by weight 

Whole oats, 5 parts 

by weight 

Wheat bran, 2 parts 

by weight 

Oil meal, 1 part by 

weight 

Corn silage 

Root crops 

Clover, alfalfa, or soy- 
bean hay 

Com stover 

Oat straw , 



1.33 



3.00 
3.00 



2.00 



1.33 

4.00 
2.50 



1.33 



5.00 
2.50 



1.60 



3.00 



1.33 



2.50 
2.50 



1.50 
2.00 



1.40 



2.50 
2.50 



1.50 
2.00 



Rations for the Fattening of Lambs.— In the following 
list are given rations suitable for the fattening of lambs 
in the corn belt, in the western part of the United 
States, and in Canada or in the northeastern and 
eastern parts of the United States. 

Daily Rations for Fattening One Lamb in 

THE Corn Belt 

Rations Pounds Rations Pounds 



No. 1: 

Shelled corn 1.4 

Clover hay 1.1 

No. 2: 

Shelled corn 1.0 

Clover hay 2.0 

No. 3: 

Shelled corn 1.2 

Linseed meal 4 

Oat straw or shred- 
ded corn, stover. . 1.0 



No. 4: 

Shelled corn 1.0 

Soybeans 5 

Soybean straw 5 

Oat straw 5 



No. 5: 

Shelled corn 1.0 

Linseed meal 3 

Silage 1.5 

Oat straw 6 



264 FARM LIVESTOCK 

Daily Ration for Fattening One Lamb in the West- 
ern Portion of the United States 



Rations 
No. 1: 
Barley 


Pounds 
1.5 


Rations 
No. 4: 

Oats 

Peas 

Oat straw .. 

Pea straw . 

No. 5: 

Barley 

Sugar-beet 

(wet) 

Prairie hay 


Pounds 
7 


Alfalfa hay ., 


1.5 

8 

2.8 

1.4 

3 

1.0 


7 

5 


No. 2: 


1.0 


Barley 

Alfalfa hay .. 

No. 3: 

Barley 

Wheat bran .. 
Prairie hay ., 


1.5 

pulp 

6.0 

5 



Daily Rations for Fattening One Lamb in Canada or 

IN the Northern and Eastern Portions of the 

United States 

Rations Pounds Rations Pounds 

No. 1: No. 3: 

Barley 1.3 Barley 5 

Linseed meal 2 Peas 5 

Clover hay 1.2 Wheat bran 2 

Mixed hay 1.0 

No. 2: Root crops 1.2 

Oats 4 

Barley 4 

Peas 4 No. 4: 

Wheat bran 2 Barley 1.4 

Root crops 1.4 Linseed meal 1 

Pea straw 5 Silage 2.0 

Oat straw 5 Mixed hay 5 



DISEASES OF FARM LIVESTOCK 

Any departure from a condition of health in an 
animal constitutes a diseased condition. In some cases 
the departure may be so slight and so unimportant as 
to be of no particular significance. On the other 
hand, the disturbance may be severe and the condition 
of the animal so serious that medical or surgical aid 
is necessary. Some of the more common of the de- 
rangements that may require medical aid are described 



FARM LIVESTOCK 266 

herewith and such treatment suggested as it is prac- 
ticable for one not skilled in veterinary science to 
undertake. The treatment of certain complex diseases 
and certain diseases that are likely to become epidemic 
and may spread to mankind are matters that should 
not be left lo unskilled hands, for the situation is one 
that may involve even more than a heavy loss to the 
owner and to the community. In the case of some 
diseases lack of proper measures may even result in 
loss of human life. For these reasons it is always 
advisable, when there is reason to suspect that a 
dangerous transmissible disease has broken out, to call 
a qualified veterinarian. In many states, a state 
veterinarian is employed and, if notified, he will visit 
•suspected premises or send a deputy to make an in- 
spection, the expense being borne by the state. Every 
stock owner will do well to post himself as to the pro- 
visions made by his own state in this particular, and 
take steps lo make use of any suggestions or assistance 
that may be available from the state veterinarian's 
office. Frequently leaflets or bulletins are issued by 
these offices, and these publications may afford timely 
warning on matters that are of the most absorbing 
interest to the owner and breeder of livestock. 

TRANSMISSIBLE DISEASES 

Infectious diseases and contagious diseases, as the 
terms are usually applied, are those that are trans- 
missible from one animal to another of the same 
species, and sometimes to those of another species. A 
contagious disease is one that requires immediate contact 
of healthy animals with diseased animals, or with their 
excretions, before transmission can take place. This is 
due to the fact that the causal agent of the disease,, 
usually a bacterium or an animal parasite, cannot exist 
for an appreciable time outside of or away from its host. 
Consequently, there is little danger of a healthy animal 
acquiring a contagious disease unless it comes close 



266 FARM LIVESTOCK 

enough to one affected with the malady to permit the 
direct passage of the germs to the unaffected indi- 
vidual. An infectious disease is one that does not require 
close contact in order for transmission to take place, 
as the casual agents of infectious diseases are able to 
exist independently outside of the host. Hence, infec- 
tion from such a disease, spread on the ground, on 
feed, in water, or in the air, may remain virulent for a 
considerable and in some cases an indefinite time, and 
animals coming in contact with it during this time 
may contract the disease. This, briefly, is the common 
distinction between infectious and contagious diseases, 
but it should be understood that there is no absolutely 
sharp line of demarcation between the two. Some 
diseases partake of the nature of both infectious and 
contagious disorders, hence, there is a tendency among 
pathologists to discontinue the use of these terms and 
refer to all the diseases included in the two groups 
as transmissible diseases. 

Mange, or scabies, is an example of a contagious dis- 
ease. It is caused by a minute animal parasite, which, 
although it may live for a short time away from the body 
of its host, is not capable of reproducing under such con- 
ditions and consequently cannot exist indefinitely. 
Healthy animals may contract mange by coming in 
contact with affected animals, by being confined in 
quarters or pastures but recently occupied by affected 
animals, by the use of blankets, harness, etc., recently 
used on affected animals, or in fact in any way that 
permits the living parasite to be transferred during its 
life cycle. If, however, sufficient time elapses between 
the use of these quarters, or articles, by infected 
animals and their occupation by or coming in contact 
with healthy animals the disease will not be transmitted, 
because the parasites will have been unable to maintain 
themselves during this time away from the host. 

Blackleg may be cited as an example of an infectious 
disease. It is caused by a germ or bacterium capable 



FARM LIVESTOCK 267 

of maintaining itself for an indefinite time outside of 

the body of the host. Hence, pastures, quarters, etc., 

when once infected with the germs of blackleg, are 

likely to harbor the infection for many years. From 

the above it is obvious that contagious diseases are 

much more easily controlled and exterminated than 
are infectious diseases. 

NON-TRANSMISSIBLE DISEASES 

Under the heading of non-transmissible diseases may 
be grouped the numerous disorders that are not due to 
a specific organism. Certain forms of indigestion, for 
example, are due to errors of diet rather than to any 
specific germ or animal parasite; some skin diseases 
are not due to parasites, and some diseases of the heart 
and of the respiratory organs are not traceable to such 
causes. 

SANITARY MEASURES 

The maintenance of good sanitary conditions about 
livestock quarters is of the greatest importance not 
only in the treatment of animal diseases, but also in 
their prevention. Although it is not true, as some 
suppose, that dirt and filth generate disease, it is 
true that most disease-producing organisms find an ideal 
breeding ground under such conditions. 

Light.— One of the most important steps in making 
buildings sanitary is a provision for an abundance of 
light. Direct sunlight is destructive to most disease 
germs, and buildings should be so placed and designed 
as to admit a maximum amount. Parts of livestock 
quarters that do not get direct sunlight should get an 
abundance of diffused light. Well-lighted interiors are 
conducive to the contentment of animals and greatly 
simplify the routine work of feeding, grooming, and 
cleaning the building, for accumulations of dirt and 
dust are quickly noticed and easily removed. 

Ventilation. — Barns that are enclosed on all sides 
require some provision for ventilation. No domestic 



268 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



animal can be confined in an enclosed space that is not 
adequately ventilated without some bad effects from it. 
As a rule, quarters for hogs, sheep, beef cattle, and 
some other animals are somewhat loosely constructed, 
or consist of sheds rather than enclosed barns; in such 
cases it is not advisable or necessary to install an 
extensive system of ventilation, but if a building is of 
such a nature as not to admit of good natural ventila- 
tion, some m.eans of supplying fresh air and of re- 
moving foul air should be provided. The King system 




of ventilating barns is by far the most practical and 
satisfactory one in use. By this system, fresh air is 
admitted to the interior of the barn at a point near 
the ceiling and foul air passes out through flues that 
open near the floor. The accompanying illustration 
shows a diagram of a barn ventilated by the King 
system. Foul-air flues and the openings into them near 
the floor line are seen at a. Fresh air inlets are shown 
at b, and at c are auxiliary openings into the foul-air 
flues. The latter openings are to be kept closed except 



FARM LIVESTOCK 269 

when the temperature of the barn becomes too high, at 
which time they may be opened to permit warm air 
near the ceiling to escape. 

Disinfection.— Although the sanitary measures already 
described go a long way toward protecting animals 
from the ravages of disease-producing organisms, it is, 
nevertheless, advisable and often absolutely necessary 
to make use of chemical disinfectants as a means of 
destroying these organisms. Successful stock raisers 
commonly make it a rule to apply a disinfectant about 
animal quarters at fixed intervals regardless of whether 
or not disease is prevalent. Such a course is to be 
commended, for it tends to prevent the unrestricted 
multiplication of injurious organisms and may fore- 
stall a serious outbreak of disease. 

Some of the most commonly-used disinfectants are 
carbolic acid, corrosive sublimate, formaldehyde, and 
the coal-tar dips. A brief description of these will be 
found under their respective names in the discussion 
of common medicines. 

Disinfection, to be effective, must be thorough. In 
fact it is commonly accepted as true that the inefficient 
and haphazard use of disinfectants may be even worse 
than no application, because it is likely to give a false 
sense of security and also to have the effect of satis- 
fying legal requirements with reference to disinfection, 
but in reality leaving the danger still present. In 
stables, sheds, barns, etc. that are to be disinfected, all 
movable fixtures should be taken out in order that 
the disinfectant may reach every accessible part of the 
structure. If wooden floors are in use and they are 
decaying and broken, it is advisable to remove them 
also, for beneath them there is sure to be an accumu- 
lation of dirt and filth that is favorable to the growth 
of disease germs. After the interior of the building 
has been exposed as far as possible by the removal of 
fixtures, etc., the disinfecting solution should be sprayed 
on all parts. If a suitable spray pump is not available, 



270 FARM LIVESTOCK 

scrubbing with a broom, brush, or mop will accomplish 
practically the same results, and even if spraying is 
resorted to, the scrubbing process should be applied to 
walls, floors, etc., where there are accumulations of 
refuse material. 

All fixtures should be treated with the disinfectant 
before being returned to the structure, or if they are 
old and racked a better plan is to install new ones. 
A concrete floor is one of the most valuable aids in main- 
taining sanitary conditions, and should be substituted 
for wooden floors whenever possible. 

In rare cases, the use of a gaseous disinfectant such 
as formaldehyde gas or sulphur dioxide, may be prac- 
ticable, but in most cases livestock quarters are not 
sufficiently close to permit of the use of these agents. 
Hence, liquid disinfectants are almost universally used 
for this purpose. 

DIAGNOSIS OF DISEASES 

The Pulse.— The pulse is one of the most important 
aids in the diagnosis of disease, because it serves to 
indicate the action of the heart and also is, to some 
extent, an indication of the condition of the nervous 
system. The pulse rate, or the number of beats per 
minute, is about as follows in different domestic ani- 
mals: Horse, 30 to 40 beats per min. ; cow, 40 to 50 
beats per m:n. ; sheep, 70 to 80 beats per min.; swine, 
70 to 80 beats per min. 

Owing to the fact that there is a considerable varia- 
tion in domestic animals, even though they may be in 
perfect health, and the further fact that experience is 
necessary in order to make a correct interpretation of 
pulse, it is not likely that the man unskilled in vet- 
erinary science will be able to diagnose diseases by 
taking the pulse. Nevertheless, it will be of some 
assistance, when taken in connection with other diag- 
nostic indications that are discussed in following 
paragraphs. 



FARM LIVESTOCK 271 

Temperature.— The following figures indicate the range 
of temperatures of various animals under normal condi- 
tions: Horses, 100° to 101°; cattle, 100° to 103°; sheep, 
101° to 104°; swine, 102° to 104°. 

Temperatures of domestic animals are best taken by 
means of the special thermometer known as a clinical 
thermometer, which may be purchased from any drug- 
gist. A considerable rise or fall of temperature, from 
the figures given, may be taken as an indication of a 
diseased condition. In general, veterinarians consider 
that a rise of 6° or more denotes a serious condition, 
and any considerable fall below normal almost always 
signifies approaching death. It must be understood, 
however, that local conditions may operate to bring 
about considerable variations in temperature, and all 
readings of the thermometer should be considered in 
connection with them. For example, excitement, heat, 
or oestrum, hot weather, and other factors may cause 
considerable rise of temperature. Cool weather, large 
quantities of cold water or cold feed taken into the 
body, and some other factors may cause a reduction 
of temperature; hence, if at any time the thermometer 
indicates a considerable departure from normal tem- 
perature, an investigation should be made to determine 
whether it is due to any of these causes. 

Respiration.— The rate of breathing and the sounds 
heard during the process often afford aid in diagnosing 
disease. Rapid breathing may be due to disease and 
often constitutes a symptom of the disorders of the 
respiratory organs. However, it may also be occa- 
sioned by extreme heat, excitement, violent exercise, 
or other factors. Hence, as in preceding cases, it is 
important that the subject be considered in connection 
with the conditions that may have influenced it. 

Mucous Membranes.- Ordinarily, mucous membranes, 
as seen in the mouth, nostrils, and other openings into 
the body have a characteristic pink color that is indic- 
ative of health. A diseased condition usually brings 



272 FARM LIVESTOCK 

about more or less change in the appearance of these 
membranes. A flushed, congested condition indicates 
a general inflammation of the tissues, while a lack of 
proper color or paleness is taken as an indication of 
debility, anemia, or insufficient nutrition. 

COMMON MEDICINES 

The information presented here is offered merely as a 
suggestion of what may be done in certain cases and 
is not to be considered as specific directions for treat- 
ment nor is responsibility assumed by the publishers 
for cases in which favorable results are not forth- 
coming. The action of all medicines is relative, as is 
also the dosage of the same, and hence no attempt is 
made to lay down fixed rules. 

Anesthetics.— The term anesthetic is applied to 
medicinal agents that are used for producing insen- 
sibility during periods of pain, or when an operation 
is being performed. Some of the anesthetics used in 
veterinary practice are cocaine, chloroform, and ether, 
but it is scarcely advisable for a layman to administer 
them. Carbolic acid has a distinct anesthetic action 
when applied to the skin, and is sometimes applied 
locally for this purpose. 

Anodynes.— Remedies that are used to relieve pain 
are called anodynes. The following are medicines of 
this class: Cocaine, menthol, tar, carbolic acid, bella- 
donna, etc. These are used for external applications. 
Internally, opium, choral hydrate, and turpentine are 
often given. Morphine is used by veterinarians for hypo- 
dermic injections. 

Antispasmodics.— Antispasmodics are agents that relieve 
spasms or cramps. Hot and cold applications, friction, 
liniments, counter irritation, and bleeding are frequently 
resorted to. The agents enumerated under anodynes 
are frequently used internally as antispasmodics. 

Astringents.— Astringents are used to check bleeding, 
to reduce secretions, and to cause tissues to contract and 



FARM LIVESTOCK 273 

condense. Chalk, alum, turpentine, boric acid, common 
salt and iodoform are some common agents of this class. 

Blisters.— Blisters are commonly spoken of as vesicants 
and counter-irritants. Some blisters merely cause red- 
ness and a slight irritation; others are so powerful 
that they actually burn the flesh with which they come 
in contact. 

Mustard, and tincture of iodine are examples of mild 
blisters; butter of antimony, lunar caustic, and caustic 
potash are examples of severe blisters. 

ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICINES 

In most cases medicines are either administered to 
domestic animals through the mouth or are applied 
externally. Veterinarians occasionally resort to hypo- 
dermic injections, using for this purpose a syringe 
having a hollow needle. This procedure is often of 
value when immediate results are desired, or when on 
account of paralysis or other cause the animal is 
unable to swallow. It is also useful as a means of 
getting a drug into a specific locality in which it is 
required, as, for instance, the injecting of cocaine into 
the flesh previous to operations, or the injecting of 
vermicides into the windpipe to destroy worms. In 
addition to these methods of administration, some drugs 
are volatilized and animals permitted to inhale them. 

Dosage. — The doses suggested in the following list of 
medicinal agents are those calculated to be given to 
adult animals. To small animals or to animals much 
weakened by disease or other causes reduced doses 
should be given. It should be noted that ruminants, 
that is, animals that chew the cud. such as cattle and 
sheep, will take larger doses than will horses or swine. 
This is due to the fact that ruminants have four 
stomachs, and consequently a more extensive digestive 
system. 

The dosage of a solid medicament is usually given in 
apothecaries' weight. The tables of apothecaries' weight 
18 



274 FARM LIVESTOCK 

and fluid measures previously given will be of assistance 
in this connection. 

LIST OF COMMON MEDICINES 

Acetic acid: Occasionally applied externally for the 
removal of warts and abnormal growths. 

Aconite, Tincture of: Frequently administered by 
veterinarians for fevers or inflammations. It is a 
powerful drug and should be avoided in case an animal 
is suffering from a weak heart or disturbance of the 
circulatory system. Dose, horses 10 to 20 drops; cattle 
20 to 30 drops; sheep, 10 drops; swine, 1 to 5 drops. 
External applications of this drug are sometimes made 
to relieve pain, but should be used sparingly. 

Aloes: Extensively used as a purgative for horses. 
Dose, 5 to 8 drams. Should be administered in a ball 
or bolus, which may be procured from a druggist. 

Ammonia water: Frequently given as a drench in 
cases of acute indigestion, colic, bloating, and is also 
used as a stimulant. Dose, horses, ^ oz. ; cattle, 1 oz. ; 
sheep, 2 draws; swine, J4 to 1 dram. In all cases to be 
diluted with water. 

Arnica, Tincture of: Is useful to promote sweating 
and reduce fever. Dose, horses, J^ to 1 oz. ; cattle, 1 oz. ; 
sheep, 2 drams; swine, ^ dram. Applied externally, 
tincture of arnica is useful in sprains, bruises, etc. 

Arsenic, Fowler's solution of: Extensively used by 
veterinarians as a tonic for animals that are depleted 
in condition, also used in the treatment of heaves of 
horses. Dose, horses, 2 to 4 drams; cattle, 4 to 6 drams; 
sheep and pigs, 5 to 20 drops. 

Belladonna, Fluid extract of: In cases of fever, colic, 
tetanus (lockjaw), it is believed to be a valuable 
agent. Dose, horses, Yz dram; cattle, 1 dram; sheep, 20 
drops; swine, 3 drops. 

Blue vitriol {copper sulphate) : Used in the treatment 
of foot rot in sheep, also for application to wounds, 
on which it acts as an antiseptic and astringent. A 



FARM LIVESTOCK 275 

solution of 1 oz. to 1 pt. of water is usually employed, but 
in severe cases a stronger solution may be applied. 

Boric acid: A solution of 20 grains of boric acid to 
1 oz. of water is useful in the treatment of sore or 
inflamed eyes, mouth, nostrils, etc. Such a solution is 
practically non-poisonous, yet it has considerable merit 
as a germicide and astringent. 

Butter of antimony: A caustic used in the treatment of 
old sores, wire cuts, etc. in which proud flesh has formed. 
The material is applied undiluted by means of a swab. 
Must be handled with care and is never administered 
internally. 

Carbolic acid: Crude carbolic acid in a 5% solution 
is a suitable disinfectant for use about barns, stables, pens, 
and for other purposes. May be' applied with a sprayer 
or by scrubbing the surface with a broom or brush. 

Pure carbolic acid (not crude), diluted with 30 parts 
of water is useful in the treatment of wounds, sores, 
scratches, etc., and is one of the most generally used 
disinfectants in veterinary medicine. The solution 
given is efficient for sterilizing instruments, which 
should be immersed in it for five minutes. Both the 
products mentioned are extremely poisonous, and their 
careless use or storage is frequently the cause of fatal 
accidents. It is, therefore, advisable to keep them in a 
compartment under lock and key, and take careful steps 
to prevent persons not familiar with their qualities from 
having access to them. 

Calomel: An extensively used purgative and vermifuge. 
Dose, horses, ^ to 1 dram; cattle, 1 to 2 drams; sheep 
or swine, 5 to 20 grains. 

Castor oil: Purgative. Dose, horses, 1 to 2 pt.; sheep, 
4 oz. ; swine, 2 oz. 

Copperas (sulphate of iron): A valuable tonic and very 
often one of the constituents of condition powders. 
Useful for checking scours in pigs or calves. Dose, 
horses, 1 dram; cattle, 2 drams; sheep, 20 grains; swine, 
10 grains. 



276 FARM LIVESTOCK 

Corrosive sublimate ibicliloride of mercury) : A power- 
ful disinfectant and very poisonous. For external use 
only. Corrosive sublimate 1 part in 1,000 parts of water 
makes a solution that is suitable for use about livestock 
quarters, also for cleansing wounds and disinfecting prior 
to operations. It attacks metals, consequently should not 
be used on instruments or in any place where it will 
come in contact with metal surfaces. 

Coal-tar dip: A general class of proprietary disin- 
fectant and insecticidal solutions that are on the mar- 
ket under different trade names. They are extensively 
used as dipping and disinfecting solutions for sheep, 
swine, and cattle, and if they bear the label of reputable 
manufacturers may be depended on for destroying skin 
parasites, when used according to directions. They are 
also useful for dressing cuts, scratches, surgical wounds, 
etc. They have the advantage of being practically non- 
poisonous, hence are much safer to use than carbolic 
acid or corrosive sublimate, and if of good quality they 
are undoubtedly just as efficient as disinfectants. 

Epsom salts: Purgative. Useful for cattle and sheep, 
but not much used for horses. Doses, cattle, 1 to 1^ lb.; 
sheep, 2 to 4 oz. 

Gentian root : Powdered gentian root is one of the 
most common ingredients of condition powders, and it 
has considerable merit as a bitter tonic. Dose, horses, 
2 drams; cattle, 4 drams; sheep, 1 dram. 

Iodine, Tincture of: Used externally to paint surfaces 
where a counter-irritant is required, also in the treat- 
ment of skin diseases, such as ringworm. Application 
may be made once daily until the area becomes sore, 
when it should be discontinued for a time. 

Jamaica ginger: Useful in many cases of intestinal 
disorders. Should be given in milk. Dose, horses, 1 oz.; 
cattle, 2 oz. ; sheep, ^ oz. ; calves and foals, Yi oz. 

Kerosene and gasoline: Sometimes given internally for 
stomach worms. Lambs will take from 1 to 2 drams, 
larger animals a proportionate amount. 



FARM LIVESTOCK 277 

Laudaunm : Given internally for the relief of acute 
pain such as is often present in colic; also useful in 
severe cases of intestinal disorders. Dose, horses, 1 oz. ; 
cattle, 1 to 2 oz. ; sheep, 2 drams; swine, 5 to 20 drops. 

Lime water: Frequently given to young animals in 
cases of diarrhea. Should be diluted with milk, using 
about 2 parts of milk to 1 part of lime water. 

Linseed oil, razv: Extensively used as a purgative, also 
as a diluent for mixing drugs that are too strong to be 
given undiluted. For purgative effects, 1 to 2 pt. may 
be given to horses; cattle, 2 to 3 pt. ; sheep, ]/2 pt. 

Quinine: A stimulant and bitter tonic. Dose, horses, 
^ to 1 dram; cattle, 2 to 4 drams; sheep, ^ dram; swine, 
10 grains. 

Saltpeter (nitrate of potash) : A favorite remedy for 
the treatment of kidney disorders, also useful in fevers. 
Dose, horses, 1 oz. ; cattle, 1 to V/2 oz. ; sheep, 2 drams. 

Spirits of camphor: Will often afford relief from pain 
in colic. Useful in cases of dyspepsia and sometimes 
in respiratory troubles, coughs, and colds. Should be 
given in water. Dose, horses, 2 to 4 drams; cattle, 1 oz. ; 
sheep, 2 drams; swine, 10 to 20 drops. 

Sulphur: It is a common belief that feeding sulphur 
will tend to destroy skin parasites, but there is little 
evidence to support this belief. Dry sulphur dusted into 
the hair will often accomplish this result. Burning 
sulphur in a tight enclosure is useful in the treatment 
of hoose, or verminous bronchitis. 

Turpentine: A standard remedy for colic. Useful in 
cases of bloating and for the destruction of intestinal 
parasites. Should be given in linseed oil or in milk. 
Dose, horses, H to 2 oz. ; cattle, 2 to 3 oz. ; sheep, 1 to 3 
drams; swine, 1 dram. Turpentine is extensively used 
in compounding liniments. 

Whiskey: A stimulant that is valuable in cases that 
require such treatment, as for example, sunstroke, chills, 
general depression, or collapse. Dose, horses and cattle, 
2 to 4 oz. ; sheep and swine, 1 to 2 oz. 



278 FARM LIVESTOCK 



COMMON DISEASES 

Abortion. — Contagious abortion, due to a specific germ, 
is somewhat common in cows, ewes, and mares. Cases 
should be at once isolated from other animals and the 
fetus and fetal membranes burned, as they are likely 
to spread the disease. Disinfect quarters occupied by 
these animals and douche the womb with a 1% solution 
of coal-tar dip or a 2% solution of carbolic acid. Repeat 
douche daily and do not breed until all vaginal dis- 
charge ceases. A male may become infected by serving 
affected females, hence care must be used in selecting 
a sire. 

If accidental abortion, due to injury, overwork, or 
undue excitement, is threatened, give the patient rest, 
quiet, and, if necessary, small doses of laudanum. 

Abscesses. — For an abscess, as a rule, a hot poultice 
is advisable until the abscess softens and pus collects. 
The abscess should then be opened and thoroughly 
cleaned with an antiseptic solution such as carbolic 
acid. Repeat the cleansing daily or oftener if necessary. 
Apply lard or vaseline to the skin and hair about the 
abscess. 

Actinomycosis. — Actinomycosis, or lump jaw, affects 
chiefly young cattle. It is due to a fungus that is 
usually taken in with feed. If the tumor is external 
it may be removed and the wound painted with tincture 
of iodine. Internally, give large doses of potassium 
iodide— some authorities recommend 3 drams daily until 
symptoms of poisoning are seen, when the dose should 
be reduced to 1 or V/z drams or discontinued if necessary. 

Anthrax, or Charbon.— Anthrax, or charbon, affects 
horses, cattle, and sheep and is transmissible to man. 
It is a dangerous disease, for which there is no satis- 
factory treatment. Affected animals should be destroyed 
and the carcasses burned or buried in quicklime. 
Premises occupied by such animals should be thoroughly 
disinfected or abandoned and all discharges from the 



FARM LIVESTOCK 279 

bodies burned or buried with the carcasses. The utmost 
care should be observed in this work, since the disease 
is extremely infectious and usually fatal in man. A 
vaccine that is somewhat successful in rendering animals 
immune to the disease may be purchased from druggists. 

Azoturia.— Azoturia is a disease that affects horses, 
particularly work horses, after a short period of idleness 
on full feed; it is often called Monday-morning-sickness 
because of the frequent cases that develop after the 
animals have rested over Sunday on full feed. Treat- 
ment should consist of supporting the animal in slings 
if it is paralyzed, administering a purgative, and cfpply- 
ing hot blankets. A qualified veterinarian should be 
called to administer hypodermic injections and give 
other necessary treatment. Light, succulent feed should 
be given until recovery is complete. 

Barrenness, or Sterility.— Barrenness, or sterility, may 
affect breeding animals of any species. Reduction of 
flesh by restriction of diet and giving abundant exer- 
cise may correct the condition in overfat animals. 
Tonics and a liberal ration containing an abundance 
of nitrogenous feed should be given in the case of 
depleted animals. Barrenness in cows is sometimes 
corrected by injecting into the vagina a quart of warm 
water in which a cake of ordinary compressed yeast 
has been dissolved. The yeast should be dissolved a 
few hours before injection and the treatment repeated 
daily for 3 or 4 da. Some cases of sterility are due 
to causes that require surgical aid, in which emergency 
the services of a veterinarian are required. 

Blackleg. — Blackleg is known also as black quarter, and 
as symptomatic anthrax, the latter term being applied for 
the reason that the disease somewhat resembles anthrax, 
but it should be understood that the two are distinct. 
Blackleg affects chiefly young cattle and its ravages are 
most pronounced among those that are fat and thrifty. 
It is almost always fatal and no treatment is satis- 
factory. Cases should be destroyed and the carcasses 



280 FARM LIVESTOCK 

treated as directed for anthrax cases. Vaccination with 
a protective vaccine that any stockman can administer 
is very successful in preventing the disease. Vaccine 
may be had in pill form at any drug store. 

Cerebrospinal Meningitis.— Cerebrospinal meningitis 
is sometimes epidemic among horses and sheep. A 
layman can scarcely undertake treatment. If possible, 
a veterinarian who is familiar with the disease should 
be called. 

Choking. — If an animal is choked the first efforts 
should be directed toward returning the obstruction to 
the nlouth. If this is not successful, olive oil or castor 
oil should be given to lubricate the passage and thus 
aid in passing the obstruction to the stomach. Some- 
times gentle massage of the exterior of the esophagus 
will assist in this. In some cases a piece of garden 
hose may be used to force the obstruction down, but 
great care is necessary or rupture of the gullet may 
result. In cattle severe bloating may follow a case of 
choking, in which case tapping the paunch as directed 
for hoven may be necessary. A surgeon may be able 
to open the esophagus by an operation and remove the 
body. 

Colic— Colic is an extremely common disorder among 
horses. It is difficult to give specific directions for 
treatment, as there are various forms of the disease, due 
to different causes, and a treatment that is suitable for 
one is often entirely unsuitable for another. Good 
authorities recognize the following forms of colic: 
Engorgement colic, obstruction colic, tympanitic colic, 
spasmodic colic, and worm colic. Horse owners will do 
well to familiarize themselves with the different forms 
of colic and from this knowledge there will follow 
an ability to avoid many cases and to give simple 
treatment when a case makes its appearance. It is 
obvious that a satisfactory discussion of the causes, 
symptoms, and treatment of these various colics cannot 
be given here. 



FARM LIVESTOCK 281 

Constipation. — Many cases can be benefited if not 
cured by giving laxative feed, abundant exercise, and 
good care, Purgatives are often necessary, in which 
case aloes are usually given to horses and Epsom salts 
to cattle. Linseed oil or castor oil are often useful. It 
should be the aim to correct the condition that causes 
constipation; probably in most cases it will be found 
to be improper feeding. 

Cough.— As a rule, cough should be regarded as a 
symptom of a disease rather than as a disease in itself. 
One of the first steps in treatment is to provide dry, 
comfortable, well-ventilated quarters. Turpentine, mus- 
tard, and other mild counter irritants applied to the 
skin of the neck and chest are often of service. Equine 
cough syrup containing agents that tend to relieve the 
irritation may be procured from druggists. Opium or 
heroin are sometimes administered by veterinarians in 
cases of violent or spasmodic cough. 

Eczema. — Eczema is, in most cases, due to improper 
feeding, hence the first step toward treatment should be 
directed to the correction of this condition. A laxative 
should be given and the afifected skin may be washed 
with tar soap and oxide-of-zinc ointment of icthyol 
applied. 

Farcy.— See glanders. 

Foot-and-Mouth Disease.— Foot-and-mouth disease 
affects cattle, sheep, swine, and goats. It is extremely 
infectious and no satisfactory treatment is known, 
hence immediate destruction of affected animals is 
recommended. The disease is rare in the United States 
and Canada, but occasional outbreaks occur, probably 
resulting from the importation of infected animals from 
foreign countries. Thorough disinfection of premises 
occupied by diseased animals is necessary and it is 
advisable to leave such quarters vacant for several 
months before placing healthy animals in them. 

Foot Rot. — Foot rot is an infectious disease of sheep. 
Affected animals should be isolated and unaffected ones 



282 FARM LIVESTOCK 

removed from pastures that may be infected. All 
affected animals should be compelled to stand for a 
few moments each day in a shallow tank or trough 
containing blue vitriol solution, or a 2% solution of 
coal-tar dip. In advanced cases, individual treatment 
should be given by removing diseased horn and applying 
pure carbolic acid or the latter mixed with 10 to 15 
parts of glycerine, after which a bandage moistened 
with disinfectant solution should be applied. 

Founder.— For founder hot foot baths and poultices of 
thermofuge or antiphlogistine are a favorite treatment. 
If the animal is shod, the shoes should be removed and 
a clean, dry, well-bedded box stall provided. Bleeding 
and blistering are frequently practiced by veterinarians. 
In acute cases it may be advisable to cast the animal 
or place it in slings. Proper shoeing will often benefit 
chronic cases. 

Foul in Foot. — The disease known as foul in foot is 
usually seen in cattle and is often due to animals 
being confined in wet, filthy quarters. A correction of 
this condition and the application of the remedies sug- 
gested for foot-rot in sheep will usually bring about 
a cure. 

Galls.— Galls are usually due to poor fitting of har- 
nesses or chafing, and the first steps should be made 
to remove the cause. Galled surfaces should be 
cleansed and oxide-of-zinc ointment applied. Alum 
dusting powders are also often affective. 

Garget.— As a treatment for garget the udder should 
be milked dry and massaged. Cloths wrung out of hot 
water or applications of camphor ointment procurable 
from any druggist are useful. In acute cases it may 
be well to support the udder by means of a wide 
bandage around the hips of the animal. Some forms of 
garget are believed to be contagious, hence it is well 
to isolate all cases. 

Gid.— Gid is a parasite disease of sheep, often spoken 
of as grub in the head. The only treatment consists of 



FARM LIVESTOCK 283 

trephining the skull and removing the parasites, but 
the operation requires special instruments and skill in 
their use. Preventive measures such as avoiding in- 
fected pastures and destroying the heads of sheep that 
die of the disease are more satisfactory. 

Glanders, or Farcy.— Glanders, or farcy, is an ex- 
tremely contagious and practically incurable disease of 
horses, mules, and asses. AfYected animals should be 
destroyed and premises carefully disinfected. The 
disease is transmissible to man, hence the work of 
destroying animals and disinfection should be done 
with great care. 

Grease. — Grease, sometimes called grease heels or 
scratches, is a form of eczema affecting horses' heels. 
Some cases are believed to be due to filth or skin 
abrasions. The treatment suggested under eczema is 
often beneficial in early stages. The affected area 
should be clipped, cleansed, and a hot poultice applied. 
Carbolic acid and glycerine may then be applied as 
directed under eczema, the part bandaged, and the 
animal kept in a dry, clean stall well supplied with 
bedding. 

Heaves.— Heaves are not curable but may be al- 
leviated by moistening all grain or hay fed. An 
affected animal should not be watered immediately 
before exercise or work. Arsenic, iron, and strychnine 
are often given, but should be prescribed by a veteri- 
narian. 

Hog Cholera.— Hog cholera is now believed to be 
identical with swine plague. Attempts at curative 
treatment are of little avail. Diseased animals should 
be destroyed in a manner that will prevent spread of 
the infection. Thorough disinfection of pens and re- 
moval of animals to fresh pastures are essential in 
stamping out the disease. It is generally agreed by 
authorities on hog cholera that most of the so-called 
hog cholera cures are worthless. A protective vaccine 
is being used with good results, but at present its cost 



284 FARM LIVESTOCK 

seems to be almost prohibitive except under certain 
conditions. Information as to where the vaccine may- 
be procured can usually be obtained from a state 
veterinarian. 

Hoose. — Hoose is a parasitic disease of calves and 
lambs, caused by worms in the bronchial tubes, hence 
it is sometimes spoken of as verminous bronchitis. Some 
cases are successfully treated by confining animals in 
a tent or a tight room and causing them to inhale 
sulphur dioxide, generated by burning sulphur on char- 
coal. There is imminent danger of suffocating the 
animals if they are kept too long in the gas, hence 
great care is necessary. In some cases an attendant 
remains with them and opens doors when he is no 
longer able to endure the gas. Veterinarians sometimes 
inject choloroform or turpentine into the windpipe by 
means of a hypodermic syringe. 

Hoven, or Bloat.— Hoven, or bloat, is very likely to 
occur in cattle when they are allowed to overfeed, 
particularly on rank-growing forage such as clover or 
alfalfa. In early stages of the disease, a wooden 
bit or gag, retained in the mouth by means of 
light ropes over the horns will assist in getting 
rid of the gas that is accumulating in the digestive 
tract. A handful of salt placed in the mouth back 
of the gag will often make it more effective. A 
favorite remedy is 2 oz. of turpentine well diluted 
with milk or linseed oil. Other remedies are: common 
baking soda in 2-tablespoonful doses as a drench, and 
Jamaica ginger in 3- or 4-oz. doses given as a drench, well 
diluted with hot water. In acute cases when bloating has 
"become so severe that there is danger of suffocation or 
rupture of the paunch, tapping should be resorted to. 
Use a trocar and canula, inserting the instrument about 
half way between the point of the hip or what is often 
called the hook bone and the last rib on the left side 
of the animal and choosing the point where the swelling 
is most prominent. It is well to first make a hole in 



FARM LIVESTOCK 285 

the skin with a knife. When the puncture has been 
effected the trocar is withdrawn and the canula allowed 
to remain in the opening. A pocket knife may be used 
if a trocar is not available, but with the former there 
is danger of making the incision too large. 

Intestinal and Stomach Worms.— Intestinal and 
stomach worms are one of the most common parasitic 
disorders of domestic animals. Worms in the stomach 
or intestines interfere with nutrition, cause irritation 
and spasms, and may give rise to serious complications. 
Some of the different forms are tapeworms, roundworms, 
whipworms, threadworms, and pinworms. Common 
remedies for worms are turpentine, diluted with lin- 
seed oil, salt, copperas and santonin. It is always 
advisable to withhold feed for 24 to 48 hr. 
previous to giving worm remedies, and shortly after 
giving the drug a purgative should be administered. In 
obstinate cases a more specific treatment than can be 
outlined here and one that is particularly adapted to 
the specific parasite that is causing the trouble may be 
necessary. 

Indigestion.— The usual treatment for indigestion is 
to give a purgative, followed by Jamaica ginger and a 
tonic, but special cases often require special treatment. 
If the indigestion is due to improper feeding, the cause 
should be obviated by feeding sparingly for a time, or 
even by withholding feed entirely. 

Lice. — Lice are more or less common on all domestic 
animals. A good coal-tar dip is an efficient lice killer 
and may usually be depended on to exterminate the 
parasites if used in accordance with directions furnished 
by the manufacturer. 

Maggots.— Maggots are frequently seen in wounds 
resulting from dehorning, castrating, and accidents. The 
treatment is to apply coal-tar dip, kerosene, or turpentine 
diluted with linseed oil. 

Mange. — Mange is a parasitic disease caused by 
minute animal parasites or mites. It is common in 



286 FARM LIVESTOCK 

sheep and cattle and is often called scab or scabies; it 
also affects horses and hogs. Some forms of mange are 
more resistant to treatment than others. Dipping in a 
reliable coal-tar dip is the most convenient and satis- 
factory remedy for small animals. The dip solution does 
not kill eggs of the mites, hence the dipping should be 
repeated frequently if it is expected to exterminate the 
disease. If dipping is not practicable, local treatment 
with green soap, sulphur ointment, or carbolic acid in 
glycerine may be applied. The hair should be clipped 
and scabs softened before application in order to secure 
the best results. Infected quarters should be thoroughly 
sprayed with coal-tar-dip solution to destroy parasites 
that may be harbored there. 

Milk Fever.— Milk fever affects chiefly dairy cows that 
are heavy milkers. Purgative of Epsom salts may be 
given early in the disease, but if paralysis has set in, 
medicine administered by the mouth is likely to cause 
strangulation. The affected cow should be propped up 
to a comfortable position with bags of straw, and ice or 
cold water applied to her head and spine. Oxygen gas 
injected into the udder is a treatment that is now used 
very extensively. If oxygen cannot be procured, pumping 
the udder full of air by means of an ordinary bicycle 
pump and a milking tube may be resorted to. 

Navel 111. — Navel ill is an infectious disease of the 
joints. It occurs in foals and sometimes in the young 
of other animals soon after birth, and is due to the 
entrance of germs through the navel opening. Pre- 
vention consists in keeping the dam in a clean, dry, 
sanitary stall, and in bandaging the navel of the young 
as soon as it is dropped. Treatment after a case has 
developed is seldom successful. 

Quarter Crack and Sand Crack.— When a horse is 
affected with quarter cracks or sand cracks a black- 
smith may draw the parts of the hoof together with a 
carefully fitted shoe, or by means of nails. Tar should 
be applied to exclude dirt from the crevices. 



FARM LIVESTOCK 287 

Rabies. — Rabies affects all animals and is trans- 
missible to nmn, in the latter, case being known as 
hydrophobia. There is no satisfactory treatment of 
rabies in animals. On account of the imminent danger 
of spreading the disease, it is advisable to destroy af- 
fected animals at once. However, in case what is 
thought to be a rabid animal, as a mad dog, is at large 
in a community and bites animals or persons it is 
always advisable to preserve the life of the supposedly 
rabid animal until a diagnosis can be made to determine 
whether or not rabies is actually present. This precaution 
is particularly important in case persons are bitten. 

Rheumatism.— Rheumatism affects horses, cattle, pigs, 
and goats. Treatment is not very satisfactory. Clean, 
dry quarters and good, nourishing feed will go a long 
way toward preventing the disorder and will often 
bring about marked improvement in cases already de- 
veloped. Enlarged, stiffened joints may be rubbed with 
iodine ointment. Veterinarians are sometimes able to 
fire and blister affected parts with good results. 

Rickets, or Rachitis.— Rickets, or rachitis, is common 
in young pigs and is believed to be due to improper 
feeding of the dam. Treatment should be directed 
toward correcting the diet and providing clean, dry, 
sanitary quarters. Liquid feeds, such as gruels, are 
particularly useful. 

Ringworm.— Ringworm attacks horses, cattle, sheep, 
goats, and swine. The disorder is due to a fungous 
growth. Painting with iodine or a strong solution of 
cold-tar dip will usually destroy the parasite. Occa- 
sionally man acquires ringworm from animals, hence 
due precaution should be taken in treating cases. Ani- 
mals transmit the disease to animals of the same 
species, but it is said that cattle seldom acquire it from 
horses or vice versa. It is always desirable to isolate 
cases of ringworm and disinfect the quarters they have 
occupied. Green soap, boracic acid, and turpentine are 
other remedies that are frequently used. 



288 FARM LIVESTOCK 

Scab in Sheep.— See Mange. 

Scours. — Scours affects chiefly newly born animals. 
Linseed oil will often assist in a freeing of the in- 
testinal tract from irritating material. Laudanum is 
useful to relieve pain. Lime water is a favorite remedy 
with many stockmen. See that feed is clean and whole- 
some and milk pails or troughs are sterilized for each 
feeding. 

Sunstroke. — Apply ice or cold water to the head and 
along the spine. Bleeding is not advisable. A stimu- 
lant such as whiskey is often given in these cases. 
Many authorities consider it inadvisable to drench 
animals over the entire body with a hose or by throwing 
pails of water on them. Many cases of sunstroke in 
horses may be prevented. During periods of intense 
heat, provide a head covering and place in this a sponge 
moistened with cold water. Frequent watering is also 
a safeguard. 

Swine Fever.— See hog cholera. 

Tetanus, or Lockjaw.— Tetanus, or lockjaw, is an 
extremely contagious disease and a dangerous one be- 
cause of the fact that it is easily transmitted to man. 
As a general rule, treatment for the disease is useless, 
although good results have been reported from the use 
of a serum. When there is reason to suspect that an 
animal will develop tetanus because of infection from 
a wound, an immediate use of the same serum, known 
as antitetanic serum, is successful in preventing the 
disease in a large majority of cases. A qualified 
veterinarian should be employed to administer the 
serum. A wound that is suspected to contain tetanus 
germs should be opened and cleaned out so that every 
part of it will be exposed to the air, as the germs of 
tetanus do not thrive under these conditions. Pure 
carbolic acid may be used to clean the wound. 

Texas Fever.— Texas fever is a virulent disease of 
cattle and one that is very prevalent in the southern 
part of the United States. It is caused by a minute 



FARM LIVESTOCK 289 

animal parasite that lives in the body of the Texas 
fever tick or more properly the splenetic fever tick. 
Hence, efforts should be made to exterminate the latter 
pest. The method of immunizing cattle against the 
disease has been developed and used somewhat ex- 
tensively. No satisfactory treatment is known, and it 
is often advisable to destroy affected animals and free 
the other ones from ticks by dipping or spraying and 
remove them to new pasture. 

Thrush.— Thrush affects the frogs of horses' hoofs. 
Treatment consists in placing the animals in clean, dry 
quarters and cleaning the foot and applying a healing 
powder such as calomel and iodoform, equal parts. In 
some cases it may be necessary to cauterize the affected 
part, for which purpose butter of antimony applied with 
a swab is effective. Afterwards a dressing of tar and 
a bandage over the foot will serve to exclude dirt and 
permit healing. 

Tuberculosis. — Tuberculosis affects all domestic ani- 
mals. There is no satisfactory treatment for this dis- 
ease, but every effort should be made to stamp it out by 
destroying the affected animals or at least isolating 
them and abstaining from the use of any products from 
them. A discussion of the additional measures for the 
control of this disease is impossible in this space. 
Consult a state veterinarian or board of health. 



SCORE CARDS FOR FARM LIVESTOCK 

SCORE CARD FOR HEAVY MARKET HORSES 

Perfect Jxjdge's 
General Appearance Score Score 

Height: score according to class 1 

Weight: score according to class 6 

Form: according to class, broad, massive, 

symmetrical 5 

Condition: carrying a good amount of firm 

flesh 4 

Quality: bone moderately heavy, clean, firm, 
and indicating sufficient substance; ten- 
dons well defined ; hair and skin fine .... 4 

19 



290 FARM LIVESTOCK 

SCORE CARD FOR HEAVY MARKET HORSES 

(Continued) 

Perfect Judge's 
Score Score 

Temperament: quiet, yet energetic 3 

Head and Neck 

Head: medium in size, not coarse 1 

Muzzle: fine; nostrils large; lips thin, even; 

teeth sound 1 

Eyes: large, full, bright, clear 1 

Forehead: broad and full 1 

Ears: medium size, pointed, well carried, and 

not far apart 1 

Neck: medium length, clean cut, well 

muscled; tapering from shoulder to head, 

and head attached at proper angle; crest 

well developed and nicely arched; throat 

latch fine; windpipe large 2 

FOREQUARTERS 

Shoulders: obUque, long, smooth, and cov- 
ered with muscle extending into back; 

withers well finished at the top 3 

Arms: short, well muscled, elbow lying close 

to the body _. . 2 

Fore legs: viewed from in front, a perpendic- 
ular line from the point of the shoulder 

should fall on the center of the knee, 

cannon, pastern, and foot; from the side, 

a perpendicular line dropping from the 

center of the elbow joint should fall on 

the center of the knee and pastern joint 

and back of the hoof 3 

Forearms: heavily muscled, long, wide, and 

tapering from the elbow to the knee .. . 2 

Knees: large, clean, wide, straight, and 

strongly supported 1 

Cannons: short, wide, clean; tendons large, 

set well back, not tied in below the knees 2 

Fetlocks: wide, straight, strong, free from 

puffiness 1 

Pasterns: strong, of medium length; angle 

with the ground 45 degrees 2 

Feet: straight, medium size, even; horn 

dense; frog large, elastic; bars strong; 

sole concave; heel wide, high; hoof head 

large 5 

Body 
Chest: deep, low; girth large; width of breast 

in proportion to other parts 3 

Ribs: long, well sprung 3 



FARM LIVESTODK 291 

SCORE CARD FOR HEAVY MARKET HORSES 

(Contimicd) 

Perfect Judge's 
Score Score 

Back: straight, short, broad, well muscled. . 3 

Loins: wide, short, thick, and neatly joined 

to hips 2 

Under line: long, flank low 1 

Hindquarters 
Hips: smooth, level; width in proportion 

with other parts, but not prominent. .. . 2 

Croup: long, wide, muscular, not drooping. . 2 

Tail: attached high, well carried, well haired, 

with straight and not too coarse hair. . 1 

Thighs: long, muscular, thick, and wide; well 

muscled over stifle 3 

Quarters: heavily muscled, deep 2 

Hind legs: viewed from behind, a perpendic- 
ular line from the point of the buttock 

should fall on the center of the hock, 

cannon, pastern, and foot; from the side, 

a perpendicular Une from the hip joint 

should fall on the center of the foot and 

divide the gaskin in the middle; and a 

perpendicular line from the point of the 

buttock should run parallel with the 

line of the cannon 4 

Gaskins, or lower thighs: long, wide, well 

muscled 1 

Hocks: large, strong, clean, and well defined; 

free from puffiness, coarseness, and curb- 

iness 4 

Cannons: medium length, broad, flat, and 

clean; tendons large and set back, not 

too light below the hock 2 

Fetlocks: large, wide, straight, strong, free 

from puffiness 1 

Pasterns: strong and of medium length; 

obliquity not so great as fore pasterns . . 1 

Hind feet: straight, medium size, even; 

smaller and not so round as fore feet; 

horn dense; frog large, elastic; bars 

strong; sole concave; heel wide; high. . . 4 

Action 

Walk: elastic, quick, balanced; step long. .. . 6 

Trot: rapid, straight, regular, high; should 

not wing or roll in front or go wide or 

too close behind 4 

Total 100 



292 FARM LIVESTOCK 

SCORE CARD FOR LIGHT MARKET HORSES 

Perfect Judge's 
General Appearance Score Score 

Height: score according to class 1 

Weight: score according to class 1 

Form: according to class, symmetrical, 

smooth, and stylish 5 

Condition: carrying a moderate amount of 

firm flesh 2 

Quality: bone clean, firm, and indicating 

sufficient substance; tendons well de- 
fined; hair and skin fine 3 

Temperament: spirited, yet docile 2 

Head and Neck 
Head: not too large, features well defined and 

regular 1 

Muzzle: fine; nostrils large; lips thin, even; 

teeth sound 1 

Eyes: large, full, bright, and clear 1 

Forehead: broad and full 1 

Ears: medium size, pointed; well carried, and 

not far apart 1 

Neck: rather long and clean cut, well muscled; 

crest well developed and nicely arched; 

throat latch fine; windpipe large; taper- 
ing from shoulder to head and head 

attached at proper angle 2 

Forequarters 
Shoulders: oblique, long, smooth, and covered 

with muscle extending into back; withers 

well finished at the top 4 

Arms: short, well muscled, elbows lying close 

to the body. . _ 2 

Fore legs: viewed from in front, a perpendic- 
ular line from the point of the shoulder 

should fall on the center of the knee, 

cannon, pastern, and foot; from the 

side, a perpendicular line dropping from 

the center of the elbow joint should fall 

on the center of the knee and pastern 

joint and back of the hoof 3 

Forearms : well muscled, medium length, wide, 

and tapering from the elbow to the knee 2 

Knees: large, clean, wide, straight, and 

strongly supported 1 

Cannons: medium length, wide, clean; ten- 
dons large, set well back, not tied in 

below the knees 2 

Fetlocks: wide, straight, strong, free from 

puffiness 1 

Pasterns: strong, of medium length; angle 

with the ground 45° 2 



FARM LIVESTOCK 293 

SCORE CARD FOR LIGHT MARKET HORSES 

(Continued) 

Perfect Judge's 
Score Score 
Feet: straight, medium size, even; horn 
■ dense ; f rog jarge. elastic ; bars strong ; sole 

concave; heel wide, high; hoof head large 5 

Body 
Chest: deep, low; girth large; width of breast 

in proportion to other parts 2 

Ribs: long, well sprung 4 

Back: straight, short, broad, well muscled. . 3 

Loins: wide, short, thick, and neatly joined 

to hips 2 

Under line: long; flank low 1 

Hindquarters 
Hips: smooth, level, width in proportion to 

other parts but not prominent 2 

Croup: long, wide, muscular 2 ■. 

Tail: attached high, well carried, well haired 

with straight and not too coarse hair. . . 1 

Thighs: long, muscular, thick, and wide 3 

Quarters: heavily muscled 1 

Hind legs: viewed from behind, a perpendic- 
ular line from the point of the buttock 

should fall on the center of the hock, 

cannon, pastern, and foot. From the 

side, a perpendicular line from the hip 

joint should fall on the center of the foot 

and divide the gaskin in the middle; and 

a perpendicular line from the point of 

the buttock should run parallel with the 

line of the cannon 4 

Gaskins, or lower thighs: wide, well muscled 1 

Hocks: large, strong, clean, and well defined 4 

Cannons: short, broad, fiat and clean, ten- 
dons large and set back 2 

Fetlocks: large, wide, straight and strong. . . 1 

Pasterns: strong and of medium length; 

obliquity not so great as fore pasterns . . 1 

Hind feet: straight, medium size, even; 

smaller and not so round as fore feet; 

horn dense; frog large, elastic; bars 

strong; sole concave; heel wide, high. . . 4 

Action 

Walk: elastic, quick, balanced; step long. ... 4 

Trot: rapid, straight, regular, high; should 

not forge, wing, or roll in front, or go 

wide or too close behind 15 

Total 100 



294 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



SCORE CARD FOR DAIRY CATTLE 

Perfect Judge's 
General Appearance Score Score 

Form: wedge-shaped as viewed from the 

front, side, and top 5 : 

Form: spare, as indicated by prominent 

joints and clean bone and lack of muscu- 
lar development along ribs ana loins ... 8 

Quality: hair fine, soft; skin pliable, loose, 

medium thickness; secretion yellow, 

abundant 8 

Constitution: vigorous, as indicated by alert 

expression, evidently active vital func- 
tions, and general healthy appearance . . 6 

Head and Neck 
Muzzle: clean cut; mouth large; nostrils 

large 

Eyes: large, bright 

Face: lean, long; quiet expression 

Forehead: broad, slightly dished 

Ears: medium size; fine texture 

Neck: fine, medium length; throat clean; 

light dewlap 

Forequarters and Hindquarters 
Withers: lean, thin; shoulders: angular, not 

fleshy 3 

Hips: far apart; not lower than spine 1 

Rump: long, wide, comparatively level. . . > 5 

Thurls: high, wide apart J 

Thighs: thin, long 2 

Legs: straight, short; shank fine 1 

Body 
Chest: deep; with large girth and broad on 

floor of chest; well-sprung ribs 10 

Abdomen: large, deep; indicative of capacity; 

well supported 4 

Back: lean, straight; chine open 2 

Tail: long, slim, with fine switch 2 

Loin: broad 2 

Udder: large, long; attached high and full 

behind; extending far in front and full; 

quarters even 20 

Udder: capacious, flexible, with loose, pliable 

skin covered with short, fine hair 10 

Teats: convenient size, evenly placed 2 

Milk veins: large, tortuous, long, branching, 

with large milk wells 4 



Total 100 



FARM LIVESTOCK 295 

SCORE CARD FOR MARKET BEEF CATTLE 

Perfect Judge's 
Score Score 

Weight : estimated .... pounds ; actual .... 

pounds; score according to age 10 

Form: straight top and bottom Unes; deep, 

broad, low set, compact, symmetrical . . 10 

Quality: hair, fine; bone, fine but strong; 
skin, pliable; mellow even covering of 
firm flesh, especially in region of valu- 
able cuts; absence of ties and rolls 10 

Condition: prime; flesh, deep; evidence of 
finish, especially marked in cod, tail- 
head, flank, shoulder, and throat; ab- 
sence of bunches, patches, or rolls of fat . 10 

Head: clean, symmetrical; quiet expression; 
mouth and nostrils, large; lips, moder- 
ately thin; eyes, large, clear, placid; 
face, short; forehead, broad, full; ears, 
medium size, fine texture, erect 5 

Neck: thick, short, tapering neatly from 

shoulder to head; throat, clean 2 

Shoulder vein : full 2 

Shoulder: well covered with flesh; compact . . 3 

Brisket: full, broad, but not too prominent; 

breast wide 1 

Dewlap: skin not too loose and drooping. .. . 1 

Chest: deep, wide, full 1 

Crops: full, thick, broad 3 

Ribs: long, arched, thickly fleshed 8 

Back: broad, straight, thickly and evenly 

fleshed 8 

Loin: thick, broad; thickness extending well 

forward 8 

Flank: full, low, thick 2 . 

Hooks: smoothly covered; width in propor- 
tion with other parts, but not prom- 
inent 2 

Rump: long, level, wide and even; tailhead, 

smooth, not patchy 2 

Pin bones: not prominent, width in propor- 
tion with other parts 1 

Thighs: full, fleshed well down to hock 3 

Twist: deep, full; purse in steers full 4 

Legs: straight, short; arm, full; shank, fine, 

smooth 4 

Total 100 



296 FARM LIVESTOCK 

SCORE CARD FOR MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP 

Perfect Judge's 
General Appearance Score Score 

Weight : score according to age and breed ... 4 

Form: straight top and under Une; deep, 

broad, low set, compact, symmetrical. . 10 

Quality: hair fine; bone fine but strong; even 

covering of firm flesh; features refined 

but not delicate; stylish 10 . 

Constitution: chest capacious; brisket well 

developed; flank deep; bone strong; 

movement bold and vigorous 10 

Condition: thrifty; skin pink; fleece elastic; 

well fleshed, but not excessively fat; 

deep covering of firm flesh 5 

Disposition: quiet but not sluggish 2 

Color and markings: according to breed. ... 2 

Head and Neck 

Muzzle: mouth and nostrils large; lips thin. 1 

Eyes: full, bright, clear 1 

Face: short, according to breed 1 _; 

Forehead: broad, full 1 

Ears: texture, fine; size and form, according 

to breed 1 . 

Neck: thick, short, neatly tapering to head; 

throat clean, according to breed 3 

Forequarters 

Shoulder: covered with flesh; compact; 

smoothly joined with neck and body ... 4 

Brisket: well developed; breast wide 1 

Fore legs: straight, short, set well apart; 

pasterns upright; feet squarely placed, 

neither close nor sprawling 2 

Body 

Ribs: long, well sprung, thickly fleshed 3 

Back: broad, straight, thickly and evenly 

fleshed ^ 

Loin: thick, broad, firm 5 

Flank: full, even with under line 1 

Hindquarters 

Hips: level, smoothly covered; width in pro- 
portion with other parts 1 

Rump: long, level, wide and even in width; 
not covered at tail-head with excessive 
fat 3 

Thighs: full, fleshed well down to hock 2 



FARM LIVESTOCK 297 

SCORE CARD FOR MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP 

(Coiiti)utcd) 

Perfect Judge's 
Score Score 

Twist: deep, plump, firm, indicating flesh- 
iness 5 

Hind legs: straight, short, set well apart; 
bones smooth, strong, being neither 
coarse nor fine; pasterns upright; feet 
squarely placed; neither close nor 
sprawling 3 

Wool 
Quantity: long, dense, even, according to 

breed 5 

Quality: structure and color true; fine, soft, 

even, according to breed 5 

Condition: strong, bright, clean, slight 

amount of yolk 4 

Total 100 



298 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



SCORE CARD FOR WOOL TYPE OF SHEEP 



Perfect 
General Appearance Score 

Form: level, deep, stylish; round rather than 

square 8 

Quality: clean, fine bone; silky hair; fine skin 6 

Head and Neck 
Muzzle: fine; broad, wrinkly nose; pure white 

Eyes: large, clear, placid 

Face: wrinkly, covered with soft, velvety coat 

Forehead: broad, full 

Ears: soft, thick, velvety 

Neck: short, muscular, well set on shoulders. 

FOREQUARTERS 

Shoulder: strong, deep and broad 4 

Brisket: projecting forwards; breast wide. . . 1 

Legs: straight, short, wide apart, shank 

smooth and fine 2 

Body 

Chest: deep, full, indicating constitution. . . 10 

Back: level, long; round ribbed 4 

Loin: wide, level 4 

Flank: low, making under line straight 2 

Hindquarters 

Hips: far apart, level, smooth 2 

Rump: long, level, wide 4 

Legs: straight, short, strong; shank smooth, 

fine 2 

Wool 

Quantity: long, dense, even covering, espe- 
cially over crown, cheek, armpit, hind 
legs, and belly 15 

Quality: fine fiber; crimp close, regular; even 

quality, including tops of folds 15 

Condition: bright, lustrous, sound, pure, 
soft; even distribution of yolk, with 
even surface to fleece , 15 



Judge's 
Score 



Total. 



100 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



299 



SCORE CARD FOR BACON-TYPE BARROW 



General Appearance 



Perfect Judge's 
Score Score 



Weight: 170 to 200 pounds, the result of thick 
cover of firm flesh 

Form: long, level, smooth, deep 

Quality: hair, fine; skin, thin; bone, fine; firm 
covering of flesh without any soft 
bunches of fat or wrinkles 

Condition: deep, uniform covering of flesh, 
especially in region of high-priced cuts . . 

Head and Neck 

Snout: fine 

Eyes: full, mild, bright 

Face : slim . . . . ,. 

Ears: trim, medium size 

Jowl: light, trim 

Neck: medium length, light 



10 



FOREQUARTERS 

Shoulders: free from roughness, smooth, 
compact, and same width as back and 

hindquarters 6 

Breast: moderately wide, full 2 

Legs: straight, short, strong; bone, clean; 

pasterns, upright; feet, medium size. ... 2 

Body 

Chest: deep, full girth 4 

Back: medium and uniform in width, smooth 8 
Sides: long, smooth, level from beginning of 
shoulders to end of hindquarters. The 
side at all points should touch a straight 
edge running from fore to hindquarters . 10 

Ribs: deep, uniformly sprung 2 

Belly: trim, firm, thick without any flabbi 
ness or shrinkage at flank 



10 



Hindquarters 
Hips: smooth, wide; proportionate to rest of 

body 2 

Rump: long, even, straight, rounded toward 

tail 2 

Gammon: firm, rounded, tapering, fleshed 

deep and low toward hocks 8 

Legs: straight, short, strong; feet, medium 

size; bone, clean; pasterns, upright. ... 2 

Total 100 



10 



300 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



SCORE CARD FOR FAT-TYPE BARROW 



Perfect Judge's 
General Appearance Score Score 

Weight: score according to age (pigs of a 

given age should show a certain weight) 6 

Form: deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical, 

compact, standing squarely on legs. . . . 
Quality: hair, silky; skin, fine; bone, fine; 

mellow covering of flesh, free from lumps 

and wrinkles 

Condition: deep, even covering of flesh and 

fat over all parts of the body 



10 



10 



10 



Head and Neck 
Snout: medium length, not coarse. 

Eyes: full, mild, bright 

Face: short, cheeks full 

Ears: fine, medium size, soft 

Jowl: strong, neat, broad 

Neck: thick, medium length 



Sides: deep, lengthy, full; ribs, close and well 
sprung 

Back: broad, straight, thickly and evenly 
fleshed 

Loin: wide, thick, straight 

Belly: straight, even 

Hindquarters 

Hips: wide apart, smooth. 



Forequarters 
Shoulder: broad, deep, full, compact on top 6 
Legs: straight, short, strong; bone, clean; 

pasterns, upright; feet, medium size. . . 2 

Body 

Chest: deep, broad; large girth. 



Rump: long, wide, evenly fleshed, straight. . 
Ham: heavily fleshed, plump, full, deep, wide 

Thighs: fleshed close to hocks 

Legs: straight, short, strong; bone, clean; 
pasterns, upright; feet, medium size. . . . 



Total 100 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



301 



GESTATION TABLE 





Mare 


Cow 


Ewe 


Sow 


Date 
Bred 










Due to 


Due to 


Due to 


Due to 




Foal 


Calve 


Lamb 


Farrow 


Jan. 1 


Dec. 2 


Oct. 12 


May 27 


Apr. 22 


2 


3 


13 


28 


23 


3 


4 


14 


29 


24 


4 


5 


15 


30 


25 


5 


6 


16 


31 


26 


6 


7 


17 


June 1 


27 


7 


8 


18 


2 


28 


8 


9 


19 


3 


29 


9 


10 


20 


4 


30 


10 


11 


21 


5 


May 1 


11 


12 


22 


6 


2 


12 


13 


23 


7 


3 


13 


14 


24 


8 


4 


14 


15 


25 


9 


5 


15 


16 


26 


10 


6 


16 


17 


27 


11 


7 


17 


18 


28 


12 


8 


18 


19 


29 


13 


9 


19 


20 


30 


14 


10 


20 


21 


31 


15 


11 


21 


22 


Nov. 1 


16 


12 


22 


23 


2 


17 


13 


23 


24 


3 


18 


14 


24 


25 


4 


19 


15 


25 


26 


5 


20 


16 


26 


27 


6 


21 


17 


27 


28 


7 


22 


18 


28 


29 


8 


23 


19 


29 


30 


9 


24 


20 


30 


31 


10 


25 


21 


31 


Jan. 1 


11 


26 


22 



302 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



T A B L E—(Con tinned) 





Mare 


Cow- 


Ewe 


Sow 


Date 
Bred 










Due to 


Due to 


Due to 


Due to 




Foal 


Calve 


Lamb 


Farrow 


Feb. 1 


Jan. 2 


Nov. 12 


June 27 


May 23 


2 


3 


13 


28 


24 


3 


4 


14 


29 


25 


4 


5 


15 


30 


26 


5 


6 


16 


July 1 


27 


6 


7 


17 


2 


28 


7 


8 


18 


3 


29 


8 


9 


19 


4 


30 


9 


10 


20 


5 


31 


10 


11 


21 


6 


June 1 


11 


12 


22 


7 


2 


12 


13 


23 


8 


3 


13 


14 


24 


9 


4 


14 


15 


25 


10 


5 


15 


16 


26 


11 


6 


16 


17 


27 


12 


7 


17 


18 


28 


13 


8 


18 


19 


29 


14 


9 


19 


20 


30 


15 


10 


20 


21 


Dec. 1 


16 


11 


21 


22 


2 


17 


12 


22 


23 


3 


18 


13 


23 


24 


4 


19 


14 


24 


25 


5 


20 


15 


25 


26 


6 


21 


16 


26 


27 


7 


22 


17 


27 


28 


8 


23 


18 


28 


29 


9 


24 


19 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



303 



Table — (Continued) 





Mare 


Cow 


Ewe 


Sow 


Date 
Bred 










Due to 


Due to 


Due to 


Due to 




Foal 


Calve 


Lamb 


Farrow 


March 1 


Jan. 30 


Dec. 10 


July 25 


June 20 


2 


31 


11 


26 


21 


3 


Feb. 1 


12 


27 


22 


4 


2 


13 


28 


23 


5 


3 


14 


29 


24 


6 


4 


15 


30 


25 


7 


5 


16 


31 


26 


8 


6 


17 


Aug. 1 


27 


9 


7 


18 


2 


28 


10 


8 


19 


3 


29 


11 


9 


20 


4 


30 


12 


10 


21 


5 


July 1 


13 


11 


22 


6 


2 


14 


12 


23 


7 


3 


15 


13 


24 


8 


4 


16 


14 


25 


9 


5 


17 


15 


26 


10 


6 


18 


16 


27 


11 


7 


19 


17 


28 


12 


8 


20 


18 


29 


13 


9 


21 


19 


30 


14 


10 


22 


20 


31 


15 


11 


23 


21 


Jan. 1 


16 


12 


24 


22 


2 


17 


13 


25 


23 


3 


18 


14 


26 


24 


4 


19 


15 


27 


25 


5 


20 


16 


28 


26 


6 


21 


17 


29 


27 


7 


22 


18 


30 


28 


8 


23 


19 


31 


March 1 


9 


24 


20 



304 



FARM LIVESTOCK 





Ta 


BLE — (Contin 


iicd) 






Mare 


Cow 


Ewe 


Sow 


Date 


















Bred 


Due to 


Due to 


Due to 


Due to 




Foal 


Calve 


Lamb 


Farrow 


Apr. 1 


March 2 


Jan. 10 


Aug. 25 


July 21 


2 


3 


11 


26 


22 


3 


4 


12 


27 


23 


4 


5 


13 


28 


24 


5 


6 


14 


29 


25 


6 


7 


15 


30 


26 


7 


8 


16 


31 


27 


8 


9 


17 


Sept. 1 


28 


9 


10 


18 


2 


29 


10 


11 


19 


3 


30 


11 


12 


20 


4 


31 


12 


13 


21 


5 


Aug. 1 


13 


14 


22 


6 


2 


14 


15 


23 


7 


3 


15 


16 


24 


8 


4 


16 


17 


25 


9 


5 


17 


18 


26 


10 


6 


18 


19 


27 


11 


7 


19 


20 


28 


12 


8 


20 


21 


29 


13 


9 


21 


22 


30 


14 


10 


22 


23 


31 


15 


11 


23 


24 


Feb. 1 


16 


12 


24 


25 




17 


13 


25 


26 


3 


18 


14 


26 


27 


4 


19 


15 


27 


28 


5 


20 


16 


28 


29 


6 


21 


17 


29 


30 


7 


22 


18 


30 


31 


8 


23 


19 



FARM LIVESTOCK- 



305 





T. 


K^-L-E— (Continued) 






Mare 


Cow 


Ewe 


Sow 


Date 
Bred 










Due to 


Due to 


Due to 


Due to 




Foal 


Calve 


Lamb 


Farrow 


May 1 


Apr. 1 


Feb. 9 


Sept. 24 


Aug. 20 


2 


2 


10 


25 


21 


3 


3 


11 


26 


22 


4 


4 


12 


27 


23 


5 


5 


13 


28 


24 


6 


6 


14 


29 


25 


7 


7 


15 


30 


26 


8 


8 


16 


Oct. 1 


27 


9 


9 


17 


2 


28 


10 


10 


18 


3 


29 


11 


11 


19 


4 


30 


12 


12 


20 


5 


31 


13 


13 


21 


6 


Sept. 1 


14 


14 


22 


7 


2 


15 


15 


23 


8 


3 


16 


16 


24 


9 


4 


17 


17 


25 


10 


5 


18 


18 


26 


11 


6 


19 


19 


27 


12 


7 


20 


20 


28 


13 


8 


21 


21 


March 1 


14 


9 


22 


22 


2 


15 


10 


23 


23 


3 


16 


11 


24 


24 


4 


17 


12 


25 


25 


5 


18 


13 


26 


2G 


6 


19 


14 


27 


27 


7 


20 


15 


28 


28 


8 


21 


16 


29 


29 


9 


22 


17 


30 


30 


10 


23 


18 


31 


May 1 


11 


24 


19 



20 



306 



FARM LIVESTOCK 





TA-Bi.E—fCoiitvuied) 






Mare 


Cow 


Ewe 


Sow 


Date 
Bred 










Due to 


Due to 


Due to 


Due to 




Foal 


Calve 


Lamb 


Farrow 


June 1 


May 2 


March 12 


Oct. 25 


Sept. 20 


2 


3 


13 


26 


21 


3 


4 


14 


27 


22 


4 


5 


15 


28 


23 


5 


6 


16 


29 


24 


6 


7 


17 


30 


25 


7 


8 


18 


31 


26 


8 


9 


19 


Nov. 1 


27 


9 


10 


20 


2 


28 


10 


11 


21 


3 


29 


11 


12 


22 


4 


30 


12 


13 


23 


5 


Oct. 1 


13 


14 


24 


6 


2 


14 


15 


25 


7 


3 


15 


16 


26 


8 


4 


16 


17 


27 


9 


5 


17 


18 


28 


10 


6 


18 


19 


29 


11 


7 


19 


20 


30 


12 


8 


20 


21 


31 


13 


9 


21 


22 


Apr. 1 


14 


10 


22 


23 


2 


15 


11 


23 


24 


3 


16 


12 


24 


25 


4 


17 


13 


25 


26 


5 


18 


14 


26 


27 


6 


19 


15 


27 


28 


7 


20 


16 


28 


29 


8 


21 


17 


29 


30 


9 


22 


18 


30 


31 


10 


23 


19 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



307 



TA-B-LE—fCoutinued) 





Mare 


Cow 


Ewe 


Sow 


Date 










Bred 


Due to 


Due to 


Due to 


Due to 




Foal 


Calve 


Lamb 


Farrow 


July 1 


June 1 


Apr. 11 


Nov. 24 


Oct. 20 


2 


2 


12 


25 


21 


3 


3 


13 


26 


22 


4 


4 


14 


27 


23 


5 


5 


15 


28 


24 


6 


6 


16 


29 


25 


7 


7 


17 


30 


26 


8 


8 


IS 


Dec. 1 


27 


9 


9 


19 


2 


28 


10 


10 


20 


3 


29 


11 


11 


21 


4 


30 


12 


12 


22 


5 


31 


13 


13 


23 


6 


Nov. 1 


14 


14 


24 


7 


2 


15 


15 


25 


8 


3 


16 


16 


26 


9 


4 


17 


17 


27 


10 


5 


18 


18 


28 


11 


6 


19 


19 


29 


12 


7 


20 


20 


30 


13 


8 


21 


21 


May 1 


14 


9 


22 


22 


2 


15 


10 


23 


23 


3 


16 


11 


24 


24 


4 


17 


12 


25 


25 


5 


18 


13 


26 


26 


6 


19 


14 


27 


27 


7 


20 


15 


28 


28 


8 


21 


16 


29 


29 


9 


22 


17 


30 


30 


10 


23 


18 


31 


July 1 


11 


24 


19 



308 



FARM LIVESTOCK 





Ta 


BLE — (Continued) 






Mare 


Cow 


Ewe 


Sow 


Date 
Bred 










Due to 


Due to 


Due to 


Due to 




Foal 


Calve 


Lamb 


Farrow 


Aug. 1 


July 2 


May 12 


Dec. 25 


Nov. 20 


2 


3 


13 


26 


21 


3 


4 


14 


27 


22 


4 


5 


15 


28 


23 


5 


6 


16 


29 


24 


6 


7 


17 


30 


25 


7 


8 


18 


31 


26 


8 


9 


19 


Jan. 1 


27 


9 


10 


20 


2 


28 


10 


11 


21 


3 


29 


11 


12 


22 


4 


30 


12 


13 


23 


5 


Dec. 1 


13 


14 


24 


6 


2 


14 


15 


25 


7 


3 


15 


16 


26 


8 


4 


16 


17 


27 


9 


5 


17 


18 


28 


10 


6 


18 


19 


29 


11 


7 


19 


20 


30 


12 


8 


20 


21 


31 


13 


9 


21 


22 


June 1 


14 


10 


22 


23 


2 


15 


11 


23 


24 


3 


16 


12 


24 


25 


4 


17 


13 


25 


26 


5 


18 


14 


26 


27 


6 


19 


15 


27 


28 


7 


20 


16 


28 


29 


8 


21 


17 


29 


30 


9 


22 


18 


30 


31 


10 


23 


19 


31 


Aug. 1 


11 


24 


20 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



309 



Table — (Continued) 





Mare 


Cow 


Ewe 


Sow 


Date 
Bred 










Due to 


Due to 


Due to 


Due to 




Foal 


Calve 


Lamb 


Farrow 


Sept. 1 


Aug. 2 


June 12 


Jan. 25 


Dec. 21 


2 


3 


13 


26 


22 


3 


4 


14 


27 


23 


4 


5 


15 


28 


24 


5 


6 


16 


29 


25 


6 


7 


17 


30 


26 


7 


8 


18 


31 


27 


8 


9 


19 


Feb. 1 


28 


9 


10 


20 


2 


2% 


10 


11 


21 


3 


30 


11 


12 


22 


4 


31 


12 


13 


23 


5 


Jan. 1 


13 


14 


24 


6 


2 


14 


15 


25 


7 


3 


15 


16 


26 


8 


4 


16 


17 


27 


9 


5 


17 


18 


28 


10 


6 


18 


19 


29 


11 


7 


19 


20 


30 


12 


8 


20 


21 


July 1 


13 


9 


21 


22 


2 


\\ 


10 


22 


23 


3 


15 


11 


23 


24 


4 


16 


12 


24 


25 


5 


17 


13 


25 


26 


6 


18 


14 


26 


27 


7 


19 


15 


27 


28 


8 


20 


16 


28 


29 


9 


21 


17 


29 


30 


10 


22 


18 


30 


31 


11 


23 


19 



310 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



Table — (Continued) 





Mare 


Cow 


Ewe 


Sow 


Date 
Bred 










Due to 


Due to 


Due to 


Due to 




Foal 


Calve 


Lamb 


Farrow 


Oct. 1 


Sept. 1 


July 12 


Feb. 24 


Jan. 20 


2 


2 


13 


25 


21 


3 


3 


14 


26 


22 


4 


4 


15 


27 


23 


5 


5 


16 


28 


24 


6 


6 


17 


March 1 


25 


7 


7 


18 


2 


26 


8 


8 


19 


3 


27 


, 9 


9 


20 


4 


28 


10 


10 


21 


5 


29 


11 


11 


22 


6 


30 


12 


12 


23 


7 


31 


13 


13 


24 


8 


Feb. 1 


14 


14 


25 


9 


2 


15 


15 


26 


10 


3 


16 


16 


27 


11 


4 


17 


17 


28 


12 


5 


18 


18 


29 


13 


6 


19 


19 


30 


14 


7 


20 


20 


31 


15 


8 


21 


21 


Aug. 1 


16 


9 


22 


22 


2 


17 


10 


23 


23 


3 


18 


11 


24 


24 


4 


19 


12 


25 


25 


5 


20 


13 


26 


26 


6 


21 


14 


27 


27 


7 


22 


15 


28 


28 


8 


23 


16 


29 


29 


9 


24 


17 


30 


30 


10 


25 


18 


31 


Oct. 1 


11 


26 


19 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



311 





TABhE— (Continued) 






Mare 


Cow 


Ewe 


Sow 


Date 
Bred 






. 




Due to 


Due to 


Due to 


Due to 




Foal 


Calve 


Lamb 


Farrow 


Nov. 1 


Oct. 2 


Aug. 12 


March 27 


Feb. 20 


2 


3 


13 


28 


21 


3 


4 


14 


29 


22 


4 


5 


15 


30 


23 


5 


6 


16 


31 


24 


6 


7 


17 


Apr. 1 


25 


7 


8 


18 


2 


26 


8 


9 


19 


3 


27 


9 


10 


20 


4 


28 


10 


11 


21 


5 


March 1 


11 


12 


22 


6 


2 


12 


13 


23 


7 


3 


13 


14 


24 


8 


4 


14 


15 


25 


9 


5 


15 


16 


26 


10 


6 


16 


17 


27 


11 


7 


17 


18 


28 


12 


8 


18 


19 


29 


13 


9 


19 


20 


30 


14 


10 


20 


21 


31 


15 


11 


21 


22 


Sept. 1 


16 


12 


22 


23 


2 


17 


13 


23 


24 


3 


18 


14 


24 


25 


4 


19 


15 


25 


26 


5 


20 


16 


26 


27 


6 


21 


17 


27 


28 


7 


22 


18 


28 


29 


8 


23 


19 


29 


30 


9 


24 


20 


30 


31 


10 


25 


21 



312 



FARM LIVESTOCK 



Table — (Continued) 





Mare 


Cow 


Ewe 


Sow 


Date 
Bred 










Due to 


Due to 


Due to 


Due to 




Foal 


Calve 


Lamb 


Farrow 


Dec. 1 


Nov. 1 


Sept. 11 


Apr 26 


March 22 


2 


2 


12 


27 


23 


3 


3 


13 


28 


24 


4 


4 


14 


29 


25 


5 


5 


15 


30 


26 


6 


6 


16 


May 1 


27 


7 


7 


17 


2 


28 


8 


8 


18 


3 


29 


9 


9 


19 


4 


30 


10 


10 


20 


5 


31 


11 


11 


21 


6 


Apr. 1 


12 


12 


22 


7 


2 


13 


13 


23 


8 


3 


14 


14 


24 


9 


4 


15 


15 


25 


10 


5 


16 


16 


26 


11 


6 


17 


17 


27 


12 


7 


18 


18 


28 


13 


8 


19 


19 


29 


14 


9 


20 


20 


30 


15 


10 


21 


21 


Oct. 1 


16 


11 


22 


22 


2 


17 


12 


23 


23 


3 


18 


13 


24 


24 


4 


19 


14 


25 


25 


5 


20 


15 


26 


26 


6 


21 


16 


27 


27 


7 


22 


17 


28 


28 


8 


23 


18 


29 


29 


9 


24 


19 


30 


30 


10 


25 


20 


31 


Dec. 1 


11 


26 


21 



DAIRYING 



313 



DAIRYING 



MILK CONSTITUENTS 

Milk consists of water, butter fat, protein, sugar, and 
ash. The last four of these constituents are known as 
the solids of milk, and, when considered collectively in 
an analysis, are termed the total solids. 

The average composition of cow's milk is: Water, 
87.40%; fat, 3.75%; protein, 3.15%; sugar, 5%; ash, .70%. 

Milk from different cows varies considerably in com- 
position from this average. Probably the greatest dif- 
ference is in the percentage of fat. Cows are known that 
give milk in which there is as much as 8% of fat, and 
there are others that give milk in which there is less 
than 3% of fat. 

The average composition of milk from the cow, nanny 
goat, ewe, and mare, are given in the accompanying 
table, for the purpose of showing the difference in the 
percentages of the different constituents in the milk of 
these animals. 



COMPOSITION OF MILK OF DIFFERENT SPECIES 
OF ANIMALS 



Species of Animal 


Water 

Per 

Cent. 


Fat 

Per 

Cent. 


Protein 

Per 

Cent. 


Sugar 

Per 
Cent. 


Ash 

Per 

Cent. 


Cow 


87.40 
85.71 
80.82 
90.78 


3.75 

4.78 
6.88 
1.21 


3.15 
4.29 
6.52 
1.99 


5.00 
4.46 
4.91 
5.67 


.70 


Nanny goat 

Ewe 


.76 

89 


Mare. 


.35 







The butter fat of milk, which is also known as milk 
fat, is made up of small globules, the number in a 



314 DAIRYING 

single drop of milk varying from 30,000,000 to 100,000,000. 
The globules are arranged both singly and in aggre- 
gations. The fat is the lightest part of milk, and if 
milk is allowed to stand quietly for a time most of the 
globules rise to the surface. Some of the smallest 
globules, however, are not able to overcome the re- 
sistance encountered in passing upwards through the 
milk, and hence do not rise to the surface. 

Cream is the part of milk into which a large part of the 
fat is gathered. The separation of cream from the other 
part of milk is known as the creaming of milk. Gravity 
creaming, or separation, can be accomplished by allow- 
ing the milk to stand quietly for a time, and then 
removing the upper layers, in which the fat has ac- 
cumulated. Cream can be separated also by means of 
machines known as centrifugal separators. The prin- 
ciple on which these machines are based is that as cream 
is lighter than the other part of the milk, centrifugal 
force can be used in the separation of the cream. 

Two of the substances of milk, casein and albumin, 
belong to the class of compounds known as protein. 
Casein forms a large part of the curd obtained when 
milk is allowed to sour or when milk is curdled by the 
addition of rennet, a material employed in the manu- 
facture of cheese. Casein gives to milk much of its 
opacity. 

If whole milk is curdled, the fat globules are enclosed 
in the curd. The removal of the curd leaves a yellowish 
or greenish clear liquid, the whey, which contains the 
constituents of the milk that are in solution. One of 
these is albumin, a substance that coagulates on heating 
and that, in appearance, is much like the white of an 
egg. The quantity of albumin in milk is small. 

The sugar found in milk is known as lactose. It is 
much less sweet and less soluble than cane sugar and 
is obtained by condensing the milk and allowing the 
sugar to crystallize. It is used for medicinal purposes 
and for the modification of milk for children. 



DAIRYING 315 

Some of the compounds that form the ash of milk are 
in solution, and hence are found in the whey; others 
are insoluble and are removed in the curd. The ash 
constituents are an important part of the milk; without 
them it would not be a perfect food for young animals. 



BACTERIA IN MILK 

Soon after milk is drawn it begins to undergo 
changes, the most apparent one of which is that of 
becoming sour, or acid. This and many of the other 
changes are caused by bacteria. Many kinds of bacteria 
are nearly always present in milk, but in varying 
numbers. It is known, however, that milk produced 
under cleanly conditions is much freer from bacteria 
than that produced under unclean conditions. Cleanli- 
ness, therefore, is an important consideration in milk 
production. Certain kinds of bacteria are responsible 
for diseases of mankind, and many of these disease- 
producing bacteria grow luxuriantly in .milk and are 
often found there in large numbers; the best way to 
exclude them is by producing and caring for the milk 
in the most sanitary manner possible. 

Bacteria thrive best where food is abundant, where 
the temperature is favorable for their growth, and 
where moisture is present. These three conditions are 
found in the soil and in the alimentary tract of animals; 
therefore, any material from these sources — mud, dirt, 
or manure, for example — that gets into a quantity of 
milk carries with it a number of bacteria. In the milk 
they find conditions favorable for growth — food is 
plentiful; the temperature, especially if the milk be 
warm, is favorable; and moisture is present. As a 
result, they multiply rapidly and in a comparatively 
short time the milk will contain so many bacteria that 
it is likely to be unfit for use. 

No other food is so exposed to contamination by mud, 
dust, and manure, as is milk. If a solid food becomes- 



31G DAIRYING 

dirty it can be washed, but when bacteria have once 
been introduced into milk, the harm cannot be remedied, 
fo: milk cannot be cleaned like a solid. Insoluble 
particles of dirt and manure can be removed by straining 
milk through a fine-meshed cloth, but many of the 
bacteria that are on the particles will be washed off 
and will pass through the cloth. Thus, if milk is to 
keep well and be an appetizing, healthful human food, 
it must be produced under such conditions that bacteria 
do not enter it in large numbers. 

Cleanliness as a Means of Control.— One of the most 
efificient ways of controlling the number of bacteria in 
milk is to exercise cleanliness at every step in the 
production and handling. Milk that contains only the 
bacteria coming from the udder will not sour for days, 
but that containing large quantities of dirt will often 
be unfit for use in a few hours. 

Cooling and Storing of Milk.— As bacteria multiply 
more rapidly at high than at low temperatures, milk 
will become sour more quickly if kept at a high tem- 
perature than if kept at a low temperature. For this 
reason, milk will keep longer if cooled rapidly soon 
after it is drawn than if it is allowed to cool slowly or 
is allowed to remain at a fairly high temperature. 

Milk may be cooled in a number of ways. When the 
quantity to be treated is small, it may be placed in a 
tall, narrow can and the can placed in cold water. 
Stirring the milk in the can will hasten the cooling to 
a great extent. When a large quantity is to be treated, 
a device known as a milk cooler is employed. The 
most efficient coolers are those in which the milk is 
allowed to flow in a very thin stream over a metal 
surface on the opposite side of which is cold water, or 
water and ice. 

Milk that has been cooled should, of course, be stored 
in a cool place, but the temperature should not be below 
the freezing point, as freezing causes the separation of 
the fat and casein in such a manner that they cannot 



DAIRYING 317 

be reincorporated. A temperature just above the freezing 
point is satisfactory, for at this temperature the milk 
will remain sweet iir a long time. 

Use of Preservatives in Milk.— The growth of bacteria 
in milk can be inhibited by the use of such preservatives 
as boric acid and formaldehyde. However, since these 
preservatives are injurious to human health, their use as 
a milk preservative is, as a rule, prohibited. Formalde- 
hyde used at the rate of 1 part to 25,000 parts of milk 
will act as an efficient preservative and will prevent 
milk from souring for from 24 to 48 hr. ; hence, there is 
great temptation for its use, especially in the case of 
the dealer who has milk that cannot be disposed of 
at once. 

Boiled Milk. — The bacteria that cause souring of milk 
are almost certain to be killed by boiling the milk, but 
there are certain putrefactive bacteria that the boiling 
temperature will not kill. Any injurious bacteria will 
not be present in any considerable numbers in the milk 
until after 24 to 48 hr. Boiled milk, therefore, is 
perfectly healthful if used within, say, 24 to 36 hr. ; 
after about 48 hr. it is likely to be harmful as human 
food. Although boiling is a means of controlling the 
number of bacteria in milk, there are several objections 
to this method of treatment. Boiled milk is not easily 
digested and assimilated by the human body; the 
boiled taste is very apparent and is objected to by most 
people; and there is always the danger that the milk 
will be a day or so old, and hence likely to contain 
putrefactive bacteria. 

Pasteurized Milk.— A method of controlling the number 
of bacteria in milk by heat that is more satisfactory 
than boiling is that of pasteurization. Liquids are 
pasteurized by heating them to a temperature some- 
what below the boiling point, averaging in practice 
from 140° F. to 180° F., keeping them at that tempera- 
ture for a given period of time, and then cooling them 
rapidly. In milk treated thus, the bacteria that cause 



318 DAIRYING 

milk to sour, and most disease-producing forms, are 
destroyed. Certain spore forms that grow rapidly when 
acidity is not present are not killed by the heat of 
pasteurization, and for this reason the milk should be 
used before it becomes old, say in from 24 to 48 hr. 
Persons often think that all milk that is not sour is 
fit for use. Long before souring takes place in pas- 
teurized milk, it is likely to be unfit for use as human 
food. It is important, therefore, that pasteurized milk 
be sold as such and that the consumer recognizes the 
fact that the milk should be used within a short time 
after delivery. 

The city of New York requires that milk sold as 
pasteurized shall be marked as such, and that the date 
and hour when it was pasteurized be indicated on the 
bottle; it must be delivered to the customer within 24 
hr., and must be pasteurized a second time. 

Acid-Forming Bacteria in Milk.— The fermentation 
most commonly found in milk is that which causes it 
to become acid. The bacteria that are responsible for 
this change are known as acid-forming bacteria. Bac- 
teria of this kind grow more rapidly than those of any 
other kind, and on this account souring is the most 
noticeable change, aside from creaming, that occurs in 
milk. In fact, souring is regarded as such a natural 
change that milk in which it does not appear is looked 
upon with suspicion, and justly so. 

All acid-forming bacteria are instrumental in pre- 
venting the growth of putrefactive forms of bacteria. 
None of the putrefactive bacteria can grow in an acid 
substance, and as acid is soon formed in milk by the 
development of acid-forming bacteria, unheated, or raw, 
milk becomes a medium unfavorable to the growth of 
putrefactive forms. This seems an important provision 
of nature, for, were it not for the development of the 
acid-forming bacteria, milk in a comparatively brief 
time after it was drawn would become an offensive, 
ill-smelling, unhealthful substance. 



DAIRYING 319 

The acid condition of milk is useful in the manu- 
facture of butter, which, as a rule, is made from cream 
that has been allowed to sour. Butter made from sour 
cream has a desirable flavor and good keeping quality, 
but that from sweet cream has little flavor and is poor 
in keeping quality. 

In addition to being useful to the butter manufac- 
turer, acid-forming bacteria are very important in cheese 
making. They are helpful in the ripening process, for 
if none are present cheese does not ripen. The presence 
of the bacteria also protects the cheese against attacks 
of putrefactive bacteria through the acid formed by an 
action similar to that noted in the case of milk. 

Pathogenic Bacteria in Milk.— As may be inferred 
from previous statements, milk may contain many kinds 
of disease-producing bacteria. Technically, these are 
known as pathogenic bacteria. They may be grouped 
into two general classes — those that are due to a dis- 
eased condition of the cow giving the milk, and those 
that are due to diseases of man and transmitted from 
one person to another through the medium of milk. 
Tuberculosis, garget, mammitis, foot and mouth disease, 
cow pox, digestive troubles, and inflammation of the 
uterus are among the diseases of cattle that may cause 
trouble and suffering in the human family if milk from 
diseased animals is used as food. Therefore, whenever 
a dairyman finds any of these diseases in his herd he 
should immediately stop selling the milk and take 
measures to have the diseased animals treated. 

The diseases of mankind that may be transmitted by 
milk are those bacteriological diseases that infect 
through the alimentary tract. Typhoid fever and diph- 
theria are often carried by milk, and it has been 
claimed that at least a few epidemics of scarlet fever 
have been caused by the contamination of milk with 
scarlet-fever germs. In view of the fact that diseases 
are often transmitted by milk, great care should be 
exercised by dairymen and consumers to prevent infection. 



320 DAIRYING 

If any of the germ diseases mentioned are near a 
dairy, the milk should not be used until all danger 
of infection is over, or if one of the diseases is in the 
family of a person employed about the dairy, he should 
not be allowed to handle any of the utensils used for 
milk, nor should he be allowed to come in contact with 
the milk in any manner. 



ABSORPTION OF ODORS BY MILK 

Milk has the property of absorbing and retaining 
certain odors, and the absorption will take place when 
the milk is either warm or cold. It is important, 
therefore, in dairy practice to keep milk in an atmos- 
phere that is free from pronounced odors of any kind. 
Milk tainted by odors is not necessarily unhealthful, 
but it is unappetizing, and is sure to be objectionable to 
the consumer. In view of this fact, it is especially 
important that the air of the dairy stable be kept free 
from objectionable odors, especially during milking time. 

Fermenting manures and feeds that have pronounced 
odors should be kept out of the stables. Silage is 
sometimes the cause of an odor in milk. If it is fed 
directly before the milk is drawn, the atmosphere of 
the barn will be filled with the silage odor and, as a 
result, the milk will be tainted; if, on the contrary, 
the feeding is done an hour or so before milking time 
and the barn is thoroughly aired there will be prac- 
tically no silage odor in the milk. The keeping of 
other classes of animals, hogs for example, in a stable 
with dairy cattle is sometimes responsible for unpleasant 
odors in milk. If other animals are kept in a stable 
with cows, great care should be exercised in keeping 
their quarters clean and thus preventing the contamina- 
tion of milk. 

Ventilation of the dairy stable is necessary not only 
for the health of the herd but for preventing the ex- 
cessive so-called cowy odor that is too often noticed in 



DAIRYING 



321 



stables, as a pronounced cowy odor is likely to taint 
the milk. 

Care should be exercised to prevent undesirable odors 
in milk after it has been removed from the stable. 
Placing it in open vessels in cellars or rooms where 
there is an odor from decaying vegetables, etc., is a 
bad practice. Bright, clean rooms that have an untainted 
atmosphere are desirable storage places for milk. 



WEIGHING, TESTING, AND KEEPING OF 
RECORDS OF MILK 

In order to determine whether a cow is a profitable 
one to keep, her owner must have a knowledge of the 
quantity of milk and butter fat that she produces in a 
year. Such knowledge can be secured only by keeping 




Fig. 1 

a record of the quantity of milk produced and of the 
per cent, of butter fat the milk contains. There are 
several ways in which this can be done. The milk of 
each milking from the cow can be weighed and a small 
21 



322 



DAIRYING 



sample taken for the determination of the per cent, of 
butter fat; or the milk can be weighed and sampled 
1 da. in each week, the figures thus obtained being 
used as an average for the 7 da.; or each day of 
every seventh week the milk can be weighed and 
sampled for testing. The 
latter method involves less 
work than either of the two 
preceding methods, and it 
has been shown to be ac- 
curate. The keeping of rec- 
ords should not be begun 
until at least 3 wk. after 
the cow has calved. 

The percentage of fat in 
milk is determined by means 
of the Babcock test. The 
essential parts of one of the 
cheapest and simplest Bab- 
cock testing outfits on the 
market are shown in Figs. 1 
and 2. In Fig. 1 is illus- 
trated a centrifugal machine, 
or centrifuge, commonly 
called a tester, for making 
the Babcock test. In Fig. 2 
(a) is shown a Babcock milk 
bottle, at least four of which 
should be provided; in (&), 
a glass pipette of 17.6 cubic 
centimeters capacity; and in 
(c), an acid measure of a 




Fig. 2 



capacity of 17.5 cubic centimeters. Such an outfit as the 
one illustrated can be purchased from dealers in dairy 
supplies. 

The details of the testing of a sample of milk are as 
follows: First, the milk is thoroughly mixed by being 
poured from one vessel into another. For taking the 
required quantity of the sample for the test, a glass 



DAIRYING 323 

pipette, such as the one illustrated in Fig. 2 (b), is used. 
A quantity of milk is drawn up into the pipette with 
the mouth until the top of the milk is 1 or 2 in. above 
the line a that is etched on the pipette tube. The 
pipette is then removed from the mouth and the fore- 
finger is quickly placed over the top of the tube. Due 
to atmospheric pressure without, the milk will remain 
in the pipette. The pressure of the forefinger is then 
slightly released and the milk is allowed to drop out 
of the tube until the top of the milk is on a level with 
the etched mark on the glass. There is then 17.6 cubic 
centimeters of milk in the tube, which is the quantity 
desired for testing. The point of the pipette is now 
placed in the neck of a test bottle such as the one 
illustrated in Fig. 2 (o). The bottle and pipette are 
held in a slanting position, and the milk is allowed to 
flow slowly into the bottle. Care must be exercised 
that no milk is spilled in any way. A small quantity 
will remain in the point of the pipette; this should be 
blown into the bottle. Next, the acid cylinder is filled 
with acid to the etched mark on the side that indicates 
17.5 cubic centimeters; for the testing of milk, sul- 
phuric acid of a specific gravity of 1.82 or 1.83 is used. 
The 17.5 cubic centimeters of acid is then poured into 
the test bottle, the bottle being held at an angle as 
before. The bottle should be turned around slowly as 
the acid is flowing down the neck; this washes any 
adhering milk into the bottle. It should be understood 
that the quantity of acid just given may not be exactly 
right for all samples, and it may be desirable, after 
some experience has been gained, to vary slightly from 
this quantity. If the acid has been poured into the 
milk carefully, the liquids will be in two distinct layers, 
with a band of partly mixed liquids between them. The 
acid and milk are next mixed together by gently ro- 
tating the test bottle in such a manner that the milk 
and acid are whirled round and round inside the bottle. 
The rotating should be continued until all clots of curd 



324 



DAIRYING 



that form are completely dissolved. The mixing of the 
two liquids is accompanied by considerable heat and the 
milk becomes dark in color. After the mixing, the 
bottle is placed upright in the tester as shown at a in 
Fig. 1. It is desirable to have the machine filled with 
bottles to balance it; in case but one sample of milk is 
to be tested the three other bottles can be filled with 
water. When the handle is turned, the chambers con- 
taining the bottles revolve around a common center and 
the centrifugal force that is exerted causes the bottles 
to assume the position shown in Fig. 3. The handle of 

the tester should be 
turned from 4 to 5 
min. at the speed 
given for the particu- 
lar machine in use. 

After the machine 
has stopped whirling 
the bottles will again 
assume a vertical po- 
sition, and the fat 
will be found on top 
of the liquid. Enough 
hot water is then 
added to each bottle 
containing a sample 
to fill the bottle to the lower part of the neck; a pipette 
or some special device can be used for this purpose. The 
bottles are again placed in the tester and whirled for 
about 1 min. After that they are taken out and hot 
water is added until the lower part of the column of 
fat comes up into the graduated neck of the bottle. 
The bottles are again placed in the tester and given 
a final whirl for about 1 min. After the completion 
of the final whirl the bottles are removed and the 
percentage of fat is determined by means of the scale 
on the neck of the bottle. 

For the testing of whole milk, a bottle with a scale 




Fig. 3 



DAIRYING 



325 



arranged as shown in Fig. 4 is used. Each division 
represents .2 of 1% of fat; hence, each 5 divisions 
represents 1% of fat. The line of separation between 
the fat and the mixture of milk and acid is curved, as 
indicated at a. The top of the fat column also is 
curved, as shown at b. When ascertaining a per- 
centage, the fat is measured from the >^ y 
lower part of the line a to the upper part 
of the line b, as indicated by the brace c. 
In calculating a percentage, the reading 
indicated by the line a is subtracted from 
that indicated by the line b, and the result 

the per cent, of fat in the milk. — e 

8 



MILK STANDARDS 

MILK STANDARDS OF THE UNITED 
STATES 

Government Milk Standards.— The United 
States government has comprehensive 
standards regarding the quality of the 
milk sold within its jurisdiction. These 
standards define the various kinds and 
forms of milk and establish certain re- 
quirements for them. The government 
standards of purity define milk as follows: 
Milk is the fresh, clean, lacteal secretion 
obtained by the complete milking of one 
or more healthy cows, properly fed and FiG. 4 

kept, excluding that obtained within 15 da. before and 
10 da. after calving, and contains not less than 8^% of 
solids not fat, and not less than 3%% of milk fat. 

The government standards define cream as follows: 
Cream is that portion of milk, rich in milk fat, which 
rises to the surface of milk on standing, or is separated 
from it by centrifugal force, is fresh and clean, and 
contains not less than 18% of milk fat. 



326 



DAIRYING 



STATE MILK AND CREAM STANDARDS 



State 



Connecticut . . . . 

California 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kentucky 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts. . 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New York 

North Carolina. 
North Dakota . . 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania. . . 
South Dakota. . 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington. . . . 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 



Milk 



Fat 

Per 

Cent. 



3.25 
3.00 
3.25 
3.00 
3.00 
3.25 
3.00 
3.25 
3.00 
3.50 
3.25 
3.00 
3.50 
3.25 
3.00 
3.00 
3.50 
3.00 
3.00 
3.25 
3.00 
3.00 
3.20 
3.00 
3.00 
3.00 
3.20 
4.00 
3.25 
3.00 
3.00 
2.40 



Solids 

not Fat 

Per 

Cent. 



8.50 
8.50 
8.50 
8.00 

8.50 

8.50 



8.50 
9.00 

9.50 
8.50 
9.00 



8.80 
9.25 
8.50 
8.00 
8.50 



Total 

Solids 

Per 

Cent. 



11.75 



12 00 
11.00 



12.50 
12.00 
12.00 
12.50 
12.15 
12.50 
13.00 

12.00 

13.00 
12.00 
12.00 
12,00 
12.00 
12.00 
12.20 
12.00 
13.00 
12.50 
12.00 
12.50 



12.00 



DAIRYING 327 

The milk standards of the government are merely a 
statement of the consensus of opinion of experts as to 
what the composition of milk should be. These standards 
are not in any law and have no legal standing, but in 
the trial of a case where milk was an article of inter- 
state commerce and deficient in milk solids or in butter 
fat without evidence of actual adulteration, the federal 
standards representing the consensus of opinion of 
leading authorities would unquestionably be submitted 
as evidence in the case and have great weight. 

State Milk Standards.— The majority of the states in 
the United States have legal standards for milk and 
cream sold within their borders. The state standards 
are different from those of the federal government in 
that they have the force of law. These standards, in 
many cases, are lower than the federal standards. There 
is a general movement in progress at the present time, 
however, among the various states whose milk standards 
are lower than those of the federal government, to raise 
the requirements for milk so that they will conform to 
the federal standards. 

In the accompanying table are given the legal stand- 
ards for milk and cream of those states that have laws 
regarding the sale of milk. 

City Milk Regulations.— Many cities, especially the 
larger ones, have rigid regulations regarding the quality 
of the milk sold within their limits and the manner of 
its production. With reference to the composition of 
milk, the standards of the cities are similar to those 
of the majority of the states. The question of the use 
of preservatives, however, is more important in the 
case of cities, as there is much temptation to use pre- 
servatives to keep surplus milk sweet from day to day; 
consequently, in most cities that have milk ordinances 
or regulations, especial attention is given to the matter 
of preservatives. 

The ideal condition with reference to the bacterial 
condition of milk is to have milk delivered to the 



328 DAIRYING 

consumer in the same condition, bacteriologically, as 
when it was drawn from the cow. This condition, of 
course, can only be approximated, and in cases where 
the milk is shipped considerable distances, and is sev- 
eral hours old when it is delivered to the consumer, it 
is extremely difficult to control the bacterial condition. 
However, as the carelessness of the producer and the 
dealer shows in the number of bacteria in the milk, 
many cities have established bacterial standards for 
milk, and the sale of milk containing a greater number 
of bacteria than that of the standard is unlawful. 

Various other city regulations are generally made. 
Usually a license must be procured by each dealer or 
person selling milk. The applicant must state, in his 
application for a license, the source of the milk sold 
and the conditions under which it is produced. The 
purpose of the license is to acquaint the health authori- 
ties with all persons selling milk in the city. Thus, 
the authorities are enabled to regulate, to some extent, 
conditions under which the milk is produced. 

Some cities require that the tuberculin test be made 
on all animals that furnish milk for the city and that 
all tuberculous cows be removed from the herds. Chi- 
cago has such a provision, but in lieu of the test the 
milk may be pasteurized in accordance with the rules 
of the board of health. Certain cities require that milk 
shall not be shipped from any farm on which there is a 
case of typhoid fever, diphtheria, or scarlet fever until 
a permit stating that there is no danger of infection 
has been obtained from a physician. As it is possible 
for milk to become infected with typhoid baccilli at any 
point in its handling, milk dealers in cities having 
contagious-disease regulation are required to report all 
cases that occur in the families of their employes. 
During the continuance of the disease in the family the 
employe is not allowed to have anything to do with 
the milk either directly or indirectly. 



DAIRYING 329 

MILK STANDARDS OF CANADA 

Following are given the milk standards of Canada as 
published by the Canadian Department of Inland Rev- 
enue. It can be seen that in many respects they are 
similar to those of the United States. 

Milk, unless otherwise specified, is the fresh, clean, 
and unaltered product obtained by the complete, unin- 
terrupted milking, under proper sanitary conditions, of 
one or more healthy cows, properly fed and kept, ex- 
cluding that obtained within 2 wk. before and 1 wk. 
after calving, and contains not less than 3^% of milk 
fat, and not less than 8^% of milk solids other than fat. 

Skim-milk is milk from which a part or all the cream 
has been removed, and contains not less than 8^% of 
non-fat milk solids. 

Pasteurized milk is milk that has been heated below 
boiling, but sufficiently to kill most of the active organ- 
isms present; and immediately cooled to 45° F., or lower, 
and kept at a temperature not higher than 45° F. until 
delivered to the consumer, at which time it shall contain 
not more than 10,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. 

Sterilized milk is milk that has been heated at the 
temperature of boiling water, or higher, for a length of 
time sufficient to kill all organisms present; and must 
be delivered to the consumer in a sterile condition. 
Sterilized milk shall not be sold or offered for sale, 
except in hermetically-closed containers bearing the 
words "This milk should be used within 12 hr. after 
opening the container." 

Certified* milk, sold as such, shall comply with the 
following requirements: 



*It is evident that the weight carried by the term 
"certified" will depend upon the character of the or- 
ganization that asstnnes responsibility. Doubtless this 
will usually be a local medical association; but there is 
nothing to prevent any responsible body of properly 
qualified persons from undertaking the production of 
certified milk. 



330 DAIRYING 

1. It shall be taken from cows semi-annually subjected 
to the tuberculin test, and found without reaction. 

2. It shall contain not more than 10,000 bacteria per 
cubic centimeter from June to September; and not more 
than 5,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter from October 
to May, inclusive. 

3. It shall be free from blood, pus, or disease-pro- 
ducing organisms. 

4. It shall be free from disagreeable odor or taste. 

5. It shall have undergone no pasteurization or 
sterilization, and shall be free from chemical preserv- 
atives. 

6. It shall have been cooled to 45° F. within J^ hr. 
after milking, and kept at that temperature until de- 
livered to the customer. 

7. It shall contain 12 to 13% of milk solids, of which 
at least 3>4% is fat. 

8. It shall be from a farm whose herd is inspected by 
a veterinarian, and whose employes are examined 
monthly by a physician. 

Evaporated milk is milk from which a considerable 
portion of water has been evaporated, and contains not 
less than 26% of milk solids, and not less than 7V^% 
of milk fat. 

Condensed milk is milk from which a considerable 
portion of water has been evaporated and to which sugar 
has been added. It contains not less than 28% of milk 
solids, and not less than 7.7% of milk fat. 

Condensed skim-milk is skim-milk from which a M;on- 
siderable portion of water has been evaporated, with or 
without the addition of sugar. 

Buttermilk is the product that remains when butter 
is separated from ripened cream, by the usual churning 
processes; or a similar product, made by the appropriate 
treatment of skim-milk. 

Goat's milk, ewe's milk, etc., are the fresh, clean, 
lacteal secretions, free from colostrum, obtained by the 
complete milking of healthy animals other than cows. 



BEE KEEPING 331 

properly fed and kept, and conform in name to the 
species of animals from which they are obtained. 

Cream is that portion of milk, rich in milk fat, which 
rises to the surface of milk on standing, or is separated 
from it by centrifugal force, is fresh and clean, and 
contains (unless otherwise specified) not less than 18% 
of milk fat. When cream is guaranteed to contain 
another percentage of milk fat than 18% it must con- 
form to such guarantee. Cream must be entirely free 
from gelatine, suci'ate of lime, gums, or other substances 
added with a view to give density, consistency, or ap- 
parent thickness to the article. Cream must contain no 
preservatives of any kind, nor any coloring matter other 
than is natural to milk. 

Evaporated cream, clotted cream, condensed cream, or 
any other preparation purporting to be a special cream, 
except ice cream, must conform to the definition of 
cream, and must contain at least 25% of milk fat. 



BEE KEEPING 

status of Bee Keeping as an Industry.— Bee keeping 
at the present time, although usually considered one of 
the minor branches of agriculture, is of considerable 
economic importance. The honey and wax products of 
the United States have an annual value of between 
$20,000,000 and $30,000,000. It is said that the state of 
California alone produced for export, in one year, 500 
carloads of honey, single apiarists of that state pro- 
ducing as much as 80 T. One baking establishment 
has purchased in one lot approximately 1,000 T. of 
honey. It is not unusual for individual apiarists, in 
America, to produce from 20 to 30 T. of honey per year. 
These statements convey some idea of the magnitude 
of the industry in this country. 

Objects of Bee Keeping.— The objects of bee keeping 
are various. The industry may be carried on as a 
business, as a side line to some other business, as a 



332 BEE KEEPING 

means of recreation, as a source of honey for home 
use, as a benefit to horticulture, or for a combination 
of these objects. 

Bee keeping as a business is now pursued by a large 
number of persons. It affords a good profit on the 
money invested, and good wages for the labor and time 
it requires. It should be emphasized, however, that it 
is unwise for the average person to undertake extensive 
bee keeping without considerable previous experience in 
managing a small apiary. If a person desires to engage 
in bee keeping as a sole business he should begin on a 
small scale, make the bees pay all expenses connected 
with the apiary and the cost of increasing the business, 
and gradually increase the number of colonies as far 
as local conditions or his desire will permit. Many per- 
sons have made a failure at bee keeping, losing all of 
their bees and considerable money, because they started 
in the business on too large a scale. 

Bee keeping perhaps has its widest field as a side line 
to some other occupation. In fact, it is usually not the 
sole occupation of the bee keeper. It is particularly 
suitable as a side line to general farming, gardening, 
fruit growing, poultry farming, and similar pursuits, but 
it can be practiced without difficulty in connection with 
most professional and commercial pursuits. If bee 
keeping is not attempted on too large a scale, it will 
not interfere greatly with other work. 

Bee keeping has always been a favorite means of 
recreation, especially to persons engaged in sedentary 
occupations. It affords a desirable amount of exercise, 
an opportunity for outdoor work, and an intimacy with 
an insect whose activity has been a subject of absorbing 
study from the earliest times. Bee keeping has the 
advantage of being a recreation that pays its own way 
and often produces no mean profit. 

Many persons keep bees for the producing of honey 
for home use. A few colonies will usually produce a suf- 
ficient quantity to supply a large family the year round. 



BEE KEEPING 333 

The value of bees in the pollination of various fruits 
and seed crops is often sufficient to warrant the keeping 
of an apiary. The quality and quantity of many varie- 
ties of apples, pears, plums, and small fruits depend 
absolutely on cross-pollination. The most active agents 
in this work are honey bees. 

Adaptability of Various Locations to Bee Keeping. 
Few industries can be pursued in such a wide latitude of 
locations as bee keeping. It may be followed in the 
country, in towns, and, to a limited extent, in large 
cities. Although at first thought country localities would 
seem to be the best for bee keeping, it often happens 
that bees kept in towns or cities find more abundant 
pasturage than those kept in the country. 

Apiariee have been established in such unexpected 
places as in the heart of Michigan forests, on floating 
hovxseboats of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, in the 
deserts of Arizona and Southern California, in the 
swamps of Florida, and on house tops in New York, 
Washington, Cincinnati, and other large cities. Actual 
experience has demonstrated that bees may be kept 
successfully in such a wide range of territory and 
under such a variety of surroundings that it would be 
unwise to state positively that bee keeping cannot be 
followed in any given locality. Of course, however, 
some localities are much better adapted to bee keeping 
than others. 

The best location for bee keeping is a region in 
which different pollen- and nectar-bearing plants bloom 
in succession throughout the spring, summer, and fall 
seasons. A desirable succession of blossoms is as fol- 
lows: Red maple, willow, and poplar flowers in early 
spring, immediately followed by an abundance of fruit 
bloom, and white-clover, basswood, and locust flowers; 
buckwheat blossoms in summer; and the flowers of 
such plants as asters and Spanish needles in the fall. 
It is particularly important that there be an abundance 
of late summer or fall flowers that will yield sufficient 



334 BEE KEEPING 

nectar to enable bees to gather enough for their winter 
stores. 

In general, it may be said that bees can be kept in 
practically all inhabited regions, although the degree of 
success likely to be attained will depend largely on the 
abundance of bee pasturage. In addition to inhabited 
regions there are numerous forest, swamp, prairie, and 
mountain sections that are well suited to bee keeping. 
Many regions that at present are entirely worthless 
would yield a good profit if made to support apiaries. 

Adaptability of Different Persons to Bee Keeping. 
Any person with fairly steady nerves and some patience 
and courage can easily learn to control and handle bees. 
There are, it is true, a few exceptional individuals 
whose systems are particularly susceptible to the poison 
injected by the bee, so much so that serious results 
follow a single sting. Such cases, however, are very 
rare. In most instances, the system eventually becomes 
accustomed to the poison, so that beyond momentary pain 
a sting causes no discomfort. 

There is little if any ground for the belief that bees 
have a natural antipathy for some persons and a natural 
liking for others. Bees are angered by actions rather 
than by any peculiarity of the individual. They prefer, 
of course, not to be disturbed; hence they usually keep 
guards on the lookout for intruders. When visitors 
approach the hives these guards are apt to fly toward 
them, and if the visitors show fear by striking with 
their hands or jerking their heads they are likely to be 
stung. A person not accustomed to bees is very likely, 
unconsciously, to dodge the head about when a bee 
buzzes uncomfortably close to the face. Bees resent 
such actions and when angered by them are almost sure 
to sting. On the other hand, an unprotected person who 
moves about with deliberation, will, under the same 
circumstances, usually escape without a sting. 

Bee keeping is a branch of agriculture that is par- 
ticularly suitable for women. The work required by 



BEE KEEPING 335 

an apiary is comparatively light and does not entail 
close confinement, heavy lifting, or fatiguing exertion. 
Many women in towns and cities, as well as in the 
country, are turning their attention to bee keeping as 
a source of i-ecreation, pleasure, and profit. 

Profits in Bee Keeping.— Considering the capital and 
the time required, bee keeping is one of the most profit- 
able branches of agriculture. It is impossible to give 
definite figures concerning the profits that may be made 
from an apiary, as much depends on the locality, the 
season, the bees, the management, and the number of 
bees to an area. A conservative estimate for a good 
locality is 25 to 30 lb. of comb honey — honey in the 
comb— or 40 to 50 lb. of extracted honey— honey extracted 
from the comb — per colony per year. It is not uncommon 
for a colony in a favorable locality to produce 60 lb. of 
comb honey in a season and even as much as 100 lb. 
per colony has been produced; these quantities, how- 
ever, are exceptional and should not be expected each 
year. Wholesale prices for honey range from about 12 
to 15c. per lb. for comb honey and from about 7 to 10c. 
per lb. for extracted honey. If sold direct to the 
consumer, comb honey brings from about 15 to 25c. 
per section — a section contains about 1 lb. and ex- 
tracted honey from about 10 to 20c. per lb. Assum- 
ing that a colony produces 25 lb. of comb honey 
per year, which is a fair average, and that the honey 
is sold for 20c. per lb., which also is a fair average, the 
gross return will be $5. 

The expense of maintaining an apiary varies as widely 
as the income. Aside from the item of labor, the ex- 
penses will include the purchase of comb foundations 
and sections, repairs, eventual replacing of hives and 
implements, and interest on the capital invested. It 
has been estimated that, on an average, the annual 
expense per colony, not including that for labor, will 
be from 50c. to $1; this estimate, however, does not 
provide for increase. Assuming that the average expense 



336 BEE KEEPING 

per colony is 75c. and that the average gross returns 
are $5, the net profit will be $4.25 per colony. This may 
seem to be a small profit, but it should be remembered 
that it is only an average. Many bee keepers make con- 
siderably more, some making double the sum given. 

Time Required in Bee Keeping.— The amount of time 
required in bee keeping is an important consideration 
to persons who desire to engage in the industry as an 
adjunct to some other pursuit. Such persons are anxious 
to know whether bee keeping will interfere with their 
regvilar work. The element of time does not, of course, 
concern persons who desire to devote their entire atten- 
tion to bee keeping, except as it affects the nvimber of 
colonies that may be managed. 

If it were not for the fact that at certain seasons, 
such as during the swarming season, bees require close 
attention, it would be possible to keep a large number of 
colonies, even though bee keeping is followed as a sub- 
sidiary pursuit. During most of the year all the atten- 
tion that bees require, provided not too many colonies 
are kept, can be given before or after regular work 
hours. Bees, to a large extent, supply their own food 
and water and work on their own initiative. There are 
times, however, when they must be carefully attended 
to, and for this reason there is danger of having too 
many colonies. Persons such as farmers, fruit growers, 
gardeners, etc., who are not closely confined each day, 
can usually keep from fifty to one hundred colonies 
without hindrance to their other work. Persons such 
as professional men, who are more or less confined, will 
usually find that from ten to twenty colonies will be 
all they can handle successfully. Almost any one can 
keep from one to ten colonies without difficulty. These 
statements, of course, are only general. If a person 
begins bee keeping with only a few colonies and 
gradually increases the number, a good idea of the 
amount of time required will be obtained and the size 
of the apiary can be governed accordingly. 



BEE KEEPING 337 

Races of Honey Bees. — All domesticated bees, com- 
monly known as honey bees, are of one species. There 
are several distinct races, or strains, of this species and 
a considerable number of varieties. The most important 
races of bees are: the Italian, the German, or Black, 
the Carniolan, the Banat, the Caucasian, and the 
Cyprian. Besides these races there are a number of 
hybrids that are of more or less importance. 

Treatment for Bee Stings.— If a person is stung by a 
bee it is important that the sting be extracted as soon 
as possible. The longer it remains in the flesh the 
deeper it will work and the more poison will be injected 
into the wound. A sting should never be grasped with 
the thumb and forefinger and lifted directly out, as 
is commonly done, but should either be brushed out 
sidewise or better be removed by applying pressure at 
the side of it with a finger nail. Grasping the sting 
with the thumb and forefinger injects into the wound all 
of the poison remaining in the sting tube. In extracting 
a sting it frequently occurs that the sheath only is 
removed, and that the lancets remain and work deeper 
into the flesh. The latter may work so deep that they 
disappear. This need cause no alarm, as the lancets are 
composed of material that will cause no injury, and 
they will be absorbed by the blood. 

The Queen Bee. — The queen bee is not a reigning 
sovereign over her colony, as the term implies, but is, 
rather, a mother. The sole function of a queen is to 
lay eggs and thus maintain the population of the hive. 
She is so highly specialized for this particular purpose 
that she gives all of her energy to egg laying, not even 
expending a part of it in procuring and digesting her 
own food. The food is predigested by the workers and 
constantly offered to her; often the workers give it to 
her directly by inserting their tongues into her mouth. 
As this predigested food is of a highly concentrated, 
nitrogenous nature and extremely nourishing, the queen 
is fitted by it to perform a remarkable work. In fact, 
22 



338 , BEE KEEPING 

the rate of egg-laying is almost incredible, often being 
as high as 3,000 eggs or more per day. The laying of 
eggs is begun, as a rule, in January, is gradually in- 
creased until just after the height of the honey season, 
decreasing when nectar is scarce and increasing when 
it is plentiful, and is gradually decreased until, gen- 
erally, about November, when it is almost or entirely 
ceased for the winter. 

A queen sometimes lives as long as 5 yr., but it 
frequently happens that the fertilizing element with 
which she is provided is exhausted long before the end 
of this time. In fact, the vigor and prolificacy of a 
queen diminishes after the second, or at most, the 
third yeax of her life. She may continue to lay fertile 
eggs during her entire life, but it is probable that after 
the second or third year she will not be sufficiently 
prolific to keep up the population of the colony. For 
this reason it is the practice of the best bee keepers 
to requeen their colony every 2 yr. ; some bee keepers 
go so far as to recommend requeening every year, but 
this is unnecessary if the queen is a good one. 

Worker Bees.— The workers perform all of the work 
of a colony, aside from the laying of eggs. They gather 
nectar, pollen, propolis, and water; secrete wax and 
build comb; serve, when young, as nurses to the brood; 
feed the queen and, at times, the drones; act as sentinels 
to ward off intruders; and, within certain limits, regu- 
late the temperature within the hive. Although the 
work of an individual worker may seem insignificant, 
that performed by the thousands of workers that con- 
stitute the chief part of a colony is amazing. 

Worker bees never attain a great age. Those reared 
in autumn may live 8 or 9 mo., and if in queenless 
colonies where little work is performed, even longer. 
Those reared in spring or early summer usually perish 
in 3 mo. and, if very active, in from 30 to 40 da. 
The period of activity of a worker bee is usually 
terminated by the wearing out of the wing membranes. 



IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 339 

When a bee is no longer able to fly it is cast out of the 
hive to perish. 

Drones. — The function of the drones is to fertilize the 
queen. They serve a slight secondary service in aiding 
to provide and maintain heat in the colony, which is 
necessary for the hatching of eggs and the rearing of 
broods. However, they perform no work whatever, living 
solely on the labors of the workers. A great many 
more drones than queens are produced by a colony; 
this is doubtless a provision of nature to insure that a 
queen will be fertilized. The drones are usually killed 
by the workers as soon as the honey-flow commences to 
diminish. 

Parthenogenesis in Bees.— Male bees, or drones, are 
produced bi- a peculiar phenomenon of nature known as 
partlienogenesis. By this term is meant the rearing of 
young from unfertilized eggs. If a queen fails to mate 
with a drone, or if her supply of the fertilizing element 
becomes exhausted, she has the power to lay unfertilized 
eggs, a power possessed also by a fertilized queen. 
Unfertilized eggs produce drones and fertilized eggs 
produce queens and workers, depending on the food given 
to the larvas. In no other form of animal life, so far 
as is known, are males produced without the union of 
male and female. 



IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 



PLOWS 

Beam, or Walking, Plows.— Several types of beam, or 
walking, plows are on the market. For plowing tough 
sod, plows with long moldboards are best, because they 
pulverize the soil but little, turn the sod smoothly, and 
are of light draft. For plowing stubble land, plows with 
steep moldboards are best, as they bend the furrow 
slice abruptly and pulverize the soil much more thor- 
oughly than sod plows. There are on the market also 



340 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 

general-purpose plows that are used either for sod or 
for stubble. Where land is so sloping that the furrow 
slice must be thrown down hill, what is known as the 
reversible plow is generally used. These plows are made 
to turn a right-hand or a left-hand furrow by adjusting 
the bottom, or standard. 

Sulky Plows. — Wheel, or svilky, plows have provisions 
for interchangeable bottoms; they can be made to turn 
a 14-, 16-, or 18-in. furrow. These plows are usually 
provided with a seat for the driver, but in some of the 
simplest types, the truck, which is bolted to the beam, 
serves merely to steady the running of the plow and to 
regulate the depth of furrow. 

Gang Plows. — Wheel plows that have two or more 
bottoms are called gang plows. Some gang plows are 
provided with hand or foot levers for raising and low- 
ering the bottoms and others are so designed that the 
bottoms are raised and lowered by the team or engine 
that pulls the plow. Gang plows are equipped with 
different types of plow bottoms, each with its own form 
of moldboard and plowshare. 

Disk Plows. — In the disk type of plow a rotating disk 
has been substituted for the moldboard. These plows 
are especially recommended for soils that are sticky 
or for use in very hard ground. 

Subsoil Plows.— What are known as subsoil plows are 
frequently used where it is desired to loosen the ground 
to a greater depth than can be done with the surface 
plow. Such plows are used to follow in the bottom of 
the furrow made by the common plow. They simply 
loosen the soil, but do not bring it to the surface of 
the ground. 

HARROWS 

Spike-Tooth Harrows.— Spike-tooth harrows both pul- 
verize and compact the soil. By means of levers the 
teeth may be placed in a vertical position, tilted for- 
wards, or given a slant backwards. When the teeth are 



IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 341 

tilted forwards the harrow exercises a vigorous stirring 
action, but when they are given a slant to the rear, the 
action is less vigorous and the soil is smoothed and 
leveled. Sloping the teeth backwards also prevents 
them from gathering trash and from catching under 
roots or other obstructions. 

Spring-Tooth Harrow.— The implement known as the 
spring-tooth harrow breaks up the soil, but does little 
smoothing or pulverizing. Spring-tooth harrows are very 
efficient implements for loosening up plowed ground that 
has become compact. The depth to which a spring- 
tooth harrow penetrates is adjusted by means of levers. 

Disk Harrows.— A disk harrow consists of a series of 
sharp disks mounted in such a manner that they may 
be made to cut straight ahead in the direction the team 
is moving, or the two sections of the frame may be so 
adjusted, by means of a lever, as to cause the disks 
to cut at an angle. Disk harrows are used for cutting 
up heavy sod preparatory to plowing, for working down 
sod that has been plowed, and for cutting up clods. 
They are also very useful for preparing a seed-bed 
in corn stubble or other loose ground when it is un- 
desirable to plow the field. They are also sometimes 
used for disking green manure or stable manure into 
the soil. 

Acme Harrow. — The Acme type of harrow is equipped 
with a series of curved blades that slice and turn the 
surface soil. It is an efficient surface-working tool 
when the ground is mellow and a cutting action is 
desired. 

ROLLERS AND DRAGS 

Rollers.— The first rollers were made from the trunks 
of trees, which were cut into suitable lengths and 
mounted in frames. Pins passing through the frame 
and driven into the ends of the log served as bearings 
on which the roller turned as it was dragged through 
the field. On a level, even surface this implement is a 



342 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 

good clod crusher and compacts the soil satisfactorily. 
The first improvement was a substitution of two or 
three sections for a single log. Such a roller is much 
easier to turn in the field than one made of a single log. 

Steel rollers are now in the market. These can be 
had either as a smooth or as a corrugated cylinder. 
The smooth-cylinder type leaves the soil in a smooth 
and compact condition; the corrugated roller leaves the 
surface of the soil in slight ridges. The smooth roller 
is wasteful of moisture unless it is followed closely 
with a harrow; the corrugated roller is a very efficient 
pulverizer and leaves the soil in excellent condition 
for further working. 

For use in the semi-arid regions of the West a special 
form of roller known as the subsurface packer is used 
for packing the ground beneath the surface for the 
purpose of increasing the moisture-holding capacity of 
the soil. This tool consists of a series of wedge-shaped 
wheels that are designed to penetrate the immediate 
surface and compact the subsurface soil and bring the 
furrow slice into immediate contact with the subsoil. 

Drags. — Drags, which are usually nothing more or less 
than three or four heavy 2-in. boards lapped one over 
the other and well secured by strips bolted across the 
top, can be easily made at home. If a vigorous pulver- 
izing action is desired, the drag is drawn through the 
field with the sharp edges of the planks forwards, but 
if a smooth action only is desired, the implement is 
drawn in the opposite direction. This tool crushes 
clods and levels the surface of a field very effectively. 



CULTIVATORS 

Single-Shovel Cultivator.— The single-shovel cultivator 
is used for marking off land with furrows or trenches 
in which seed or plants may be planted. It is a con- 
venient implement for marking out a potato patch or for 
use in the home garden. The depth of the furrow is 



IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 343 

regulated by the driver, who walks behind and usually 
carries a part of the weight of the plow by means of 
handles. If the ground is hard, some pressure on the 
handles may be necessary to secure sufficient penetration 
of the soil. 

Double-Shovel Cultivator. — A double-shovel cultivator 
is generally used where the area to be cultivated is 
small. This implement is also sometimes used in large 
fields after the corn is too tall to admit of the use of 
a straddle-row cultivator. 

Straddle-Row Cultivator.— The straddle-row type of 
cultivator cultivates the soil on both sides of the corn 
row at one operation. Straddle-row cultivators can be 
had either for cultivating a single row at a time or 
two rows at a time. With an implement of the latter 
type one man with three horses can cultivate practically 
twice as much corn in a day as one man with two 
horses using a single-row implement. 

In the modern single-row and double-row cultivators 
the plows are attached to a frame that is mounted on 
wheels, and the implement is provided with levers and 
other means of adjustment. Cultivators may be equipped 
with different kinds of shovels, or disks, depending on 
the character of the work to be done. Under some 
circumstances the spring-tooth shovel is desirable. In 
case vines are very troublesome in the field, gangs 
carrying three disks each are more effective than shovels 
in cutting their way through the soil. Early in the 
season large shovels are used on the implement, but 
after the first or second cultivation these should give 
way to short narrow shovels, which will stir the surface 
without disturbing the roots of the crop. If surface 
cultivation is desirable, sweep plates may be sub- 
stituted. 



344 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 

WEEDERS 

The weeder is a very satisfactory implement of 
tillage when the ground is mellow and the weeds are 
small. It is of particular value for cultivating corn 
before it is up and for several days after the plants 
are through the ground. The slender, flexible teeth 
destroy the young weeds without injury to the corn 
plants. Weeders are made in several sizes from those 
that till a single row to those that till several rows 
at a time. 

PLANTING IMPLEMENTS 

Broadcasting Seeders.— Seeders that merely scatter 
the seed over the surface of the field are known as 
broadcasting seeders, or simply as broadcasters. They 
are used principally for the seeding of grasses and also 
sometimes for the seeding of small grains. The simplest 
form of broadcasting machine is known as the knapsack 
seeder. It consists of a bag to hold the seed, and is 
supported by means of a strap over the shoulder. 
The bottom of the bag has an opening that allows the 
seed to pass out to the distributing mechanism, which 
is operated by means of gears turned by a handle. The 
rate of seeding is determined by the size of the opening 
in the bottom of the bag, and the rate at which the 
sower walks. 

Another type of hand broadcaster is the wheelbarrow 
seeder. In this implement the bottom of the box is 
provided with openings and a vibrating rod. As the 
seeder is pushed across the field, the vibrating rod 
causes the seed to be distributed from the openings of 
the box. These wheelbarrow machines are made in 
several widths, 14 ft. being the common width. 

The end-gate broadcasting seeder resembles the knap- 
sack seeder in general principles, except that the bag 
is replaced by a metal hopper and the distributing disks 
are driven by power obtained from a sprocket bolted to 



IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 345 

the wheels of a wagon, on the end gate of which the 
seeder is attached. 

Grain Drills. — The modern grain drill consists of the 
following essential parts: the hopper, the supporting 
frame, the wheels, the feeding mechanism, the furrow 
opener, and the tubes for conveying the seed from the 
hopper to the ground. In addition, manufacturers of 
drills generally equip their machines with fertilizer at- 
tachments for distributing commercial fertilizer at the 
time the seed is sown. The fertilizer is carried in a 
hopper at the rear of the seed box. The bottom of the 
hopper is provided with a feeding mechanism that 
pulverizes che material and conveys it to the tubes 
leading down to the soil. Another attachment often 
included on the grass drill is a grass-seeder. The 
hopper for grass seed is usually placed on the front 
of the main grain box and is provided with a seeding 
mechanism that differs from the grain-seeding device 
only in size. Short lengths of chain are frequently 
attached to the furrow openers of the implement to drag 
behind them for the purpose of making sure that all 
grain is covered. These so-called covering chains are 
especially useful when the soil is wet. For use in dry 
regions, drills are frequently equipped with what are 
known as press wheels, which follow the furrow opener. 
These press wheels are designed to compact the soil 
around the seed and thus to encourage the capillary 
movement of moisture up into the seed-bed. 

Corn and Cotton Planters.— Corn planters are of two 
types, namely, hand planters and horse planters. Hand 
planters are used to a limited extent on small farms, 
but probably their greatest use is found in the replanting 
of missing hills in large fields. 

The modern two-horse corn planter is designed to drill 
or to hill drop two rows of seed at a time. The frame of 
the corn planter is, as a rule, constructed entirely of steel 
and is made as light as is consistent with strength and 
rigidity. The front of the planter is usually joined to 



346 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 

the main frame by a hinge that is controlled by a lever. 
This lever is used to regulate the planting by raising 
or lowering the furrow openers. The bottoms of the seed 
boxes are generally provided with revolving plates, in 
which are holes or notches to receive the grains of 
corn. As the plate revolves, a grain or a number of 
grains are dropped into what is known as the planter 
shank each time the hole in the plate comes over the 
opening. 

In some localities, particularly in the eastern and 
southern parts of the United States, it is desirable to 
use commercial fertilizers to secure early and quick 
growth of corn. To meet this need, fertilizer attach- 
ments may be secured with almost any make of planter. 

The single-row corn drill, for which only one horse is 
necessary, is extensively used in some parts of the 
country. The mechanical principles used in this drill 
are practically the same as those employed in connec- 
tion with the two-row planter. The standard equipment 
has one dropping plate, which may be adjusted to drop 
one grain every 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, or 18 in. as desired. 

In the semi-arid regions it is desirable to plant corn 
in the bottom of a deep furrow and gradually fill this 
furrow as the plant develops. This method of planting is 
known as listing, and the machines constructed for the 
purpose are called listers. 

Combination corn and cotton planters of the same 
general type as the regular corn planters are to be 
secured on the market. In these machines only a slight 
adjustment is necessary to adapt the drill to either 
corn or cotton. 

Potato Planters. — In many of the potato-growing dis- 
tricts, special potato planters are used that open the 
furrow and drop either cut or whole potatoes at regular 
intervals and cover the furrow. Fertilizer is used very 
generally by large potato growers; hence, the potato 
planters are usually equipped with fertilizer attachments. 
In these attachments the fertilizer is carried in boxes 



IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 347 

from which it is forced in the desired quantities inta 
the furrow, where it is mixed with the soil by disks. 
Seedling Planters.— In the tobacco districts and in the 
extensive trucking sections young seedling plants are 
frequently transplanted by machinery. In one of the 
most modern of these transplanters the essential parts 
consist of a barrel for carrying the water supply, a 
furrow opener, and a covering device. Two men riding 
on seats provided at the rear of the implement hold the 
plants in an upright position in the furrow just behind 
the opener until the soil is pressed around them by a 
covering shovel. The soil in the furrow is moistened 
by water from the barrel. 



HARVESTING IMPLEMENTS 

HAY-HARVESTING IMPLEMENTS 

Mowers. — Mowers are now made in sizes of 3^, 4, 4]/^, 
5, 6, and 7 ft. in width of cut. The ordinary two-horse 
farm mowers are usually either 4J/2 or 5 ft. in width of 
cut. The cutting swath of the one-horse mower is 
about 3^ ft. 

The best mowers are provided with roller bearings on 
the main shaft for the purpose of reducing friction and 
draft. Gears on the main and cross-shafts should in all 
cases be closed to prevent dust and grit from getting 
in and wearing out the parts. 

The cutter bar of a mower is usually known as a 
floating bar, because it is connected to the frame in 
such a way that it practically floats over the uneven 
ground. Every mower should have some method of 
adjusting the cutter bar so that when the pins wear 
and sag in the bar, caused by the constant pressure 
against it, the space may be taken up. 

The grass board fastened to the outside end of the 
cutter bar serves the purpose of turning the grass in 
toward the cutter bar. This board should be provided 



348 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 

with a spring so that it may be adjvisted to heavy grass 
without danger of breaking either the board or the out- 
side shoe. All mowers are provided with some arrange- 
ment by which the cutter bar can be raised by the 
operator from the seat. Some have both a hand and a 
foot lift. 

Windrower, or Buncher.— Where clover is raised for 
seed, a very handy attachment for the mower is a 
buncher. This implement is used for bunching clover, 
timothy, prairie hay, and field peas. It places the grass 
or vines in windrows where the sun and air have a 
chance to dry and cure them. 

Hay Rakes. — Two classes of front-delivery hay rakes 
are in general use in the United States: the so-called 
hand-dump rake and the self-dump rake. The former 
is operated by means of a lever and the latter by a 
foot trip that throws into action a ratchet in the wheel. 
This raises the teeth of the rake at regular in- 
tervals and leaves the hay in the windrow. 

The side-delivery hay rake is an invention of recent 
years and is used in connection with hay loading. With 
the front-delivery style of hay rake it is diiificult to 
rake hay so that it will lie in long windrows con- 
venient for loading with the hay loader. With the 
side-delivery rake, however, a continuous windrow can 
be made. 

Where large fields of hay are to be handled quickly 
and taken directly to the stack, a sweep rake is 
used. The large wooden teeth, which are drawn be- 
tween two horses, will take up the hay either from 
the swath or the windrow. When the load is secured, 
the teeth are raised and the hay is drawn to a point 
where the stack is being built and is dumped on the 
teeth of the stacker and by it elevated to the stack. 

Hay Stacker.— A power hay stacker is usually used 
in connection with a sweep rake. By means of a 
stacker the hay is quickly elevated and swung to any 
part of the stack. Several types of stackers are in use 



IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 349 

in various parts of the country and they have been 
found to be economical labor-saving devices where a 
large quantity of hay is to be stacked. 

Hay Tedder. — Hay tedders are valuable machines for 
shaking up hay so that the sun can cure it. They are 
especially valuable for stirring up hay that has been 
rained on or that is very heavy. 

Hay Loaders. — By means of hay loaders it is possible 
to load a quantity of hay on a wagon in much less time 
than by pitching it with forks. Usually, hay loaders are 
mounted on two wheels and are made to be drawn after 
the wagon. They have a cylinder carrying hooks de- 
signed to lift the hay from the ground and deposit it 
vipon the endless carrier that elevates it onto the 
wagon. One type of loader consists of a series of rakes 
so mounted on a crank-shaft that they grasp the hay in 
the swath and draw it a short distance upwards on 
the frame of the loader by a peculiar alternating move- 
ment of the rakes. The hooks on the under side of 
each rake gradually carry the hay to the top of the 
elevator, where it falls over on the wagon. 

SMALL-GRAIN HARVESTING IMPLEMENTS 
Grain Binders. — The operation of the grain binder is as 
follows: As the machine advances the grain is caught 
by the reel and pushed backwards between the cutter-bar 
fingers until it is cut. The grain then falls on the 
platform and is conveyed by the platform canvas to the 
elevator, which carries it to the binding mechanism. As 
soon as a sufficient quantity of grain has accumulated 
in the binding mechanism, it is bound into a bundle 
and deposited on the carrier. When a number of these 
bundles have accumulated, the bundle carrier is released 
by means of a lever controlled by the driver and the 
bundles are deposited in a convenient pile. Grain 
binders are made with 5-, 6-, 7-, and 8-ft. cuts for the 
pull machines, and 10-, 12-, and 14-ft. cuts for the push 
machines. 



350 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 

Headers. — Machines known as headers are much used 
in the prairie regions for harvesting small grain. They 
are fitted with a long reel and a cutting device that 
removes the heads and drops them on a moving canvas, 
by which they are elevated and deposited in a wagon 
driven along by the side of the machine. The header 
is pushed by attaching four or more horses abreast to 
tongues in the rear. 

Combined Harvester and Thrasher.— In California and 
other localities where there is no probability of rain 
during the harvest seasons, use is made of a machine 
known as the combined harvester and thrasher. These 
machines head, thrash, and sack the grain at one 
operation. They are propelled either by horses or by 
a traction engine. If horses are used, from thirty to 
thirty-six are required to furnish the power necessary. 
The machines have a daily capacity of from 60 to 125 A. 
of grain. 

Self-Rake Reaper.— The self-rake reaper is an imple- 
ment used chiefly for cutting small grain. It cuts the 
grain and places it in bundles ready for binding. These 
machines are used principally in regions too hilly for 
binders. They are also used for cutting grain — flax, for 
example— that it is not desired to have bound into 
bundles. 

CORN-HARVESTING MACHINERY 
Corn Pickers. — Up to the present time there are two 
general classes of pickers on the market. One type is 
intended to pick the ears and remove the husks before 
the corn i& elevated into a wagon that is drawn beside 
the machine. The other type picks the ears without any 
attempt to remove the husks. Neither type has come 
into very general use, perhaps largely on account of the 
expense of the implement. 

Corn Binders. — During recent years corn binders have 
come into extensive use for the harvesting of corn. 
These machines cut the corn stalks and bind them into 



IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 351 

bundles. They weigh complete from 1,400 to 1,800 lb. 
Generally speaking, those weighing in the neighborhood 
of 1,500 lb. have been most successful, this weight seem- 
ing to give the proper relation between driving power 
and durability. 

Corn Huskers and Shredders. — The scarcity of farm 
labor and the desirability of having corn fodder shredded 
for convenience in handling has led to the development 
of a combined husker and shredder. In most of these 
machines the fodder is placed on a feeding table from 
which it is fed into snapping rolls. As the stalks pass 
these rolls the ears are removed and allowed to fall 
directly on husking rolls, or on a conveyer, which car- 
ries them to husking rolls. The husks are removed from 
the ear by these rolls and are conveyed to the rear of 
the machine by a husk drag. After the removal of the 
ears, the stalks pass to the shredder head, where they 
are cut and split into small fragments. From the 
shredder head the material is carried to the conveyer at 
the opposite end of the machine. The ears pass from 
the husking rolls to a conveyer at the front of the 
machine. The shredded fodder passes over beaters that 
remove any shelled corn that it may contain. 

ROOT-CROP HARVESTING IMPLEMENTS 
Potato Diggers. — Single-shovel potato harvesters that 
are provided with an advanced furrow opener and a 
shaker at the rear are on the market. The shaker is 
operated by means of a spur wheel, which engages the 
soil at the bottom of the furrow and gives the rods a 
rapid vertical motion. This motion separates the dirt 
from the potatoes and leaves them in a continuous row 
on the surface. 

Where a large number of potatoes are grown annually, 
a type of digger with a greater capacity than that of 
the single-shovel type is in use. These large machines 
are provided with two main drive wheels at the rear and 
a two-wheeled truck in front. A feature of this machine 



352 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 

are steel rods that have a backwards and forwards mo- 
tion that sifts out all the dirt and deposits the potatoes 
in a compact row on clean ground at the rear of the 
machine. At the same time, the vines and trash are 
deposited at one side by another set of rods, assisted 
by vine forks. 

Beet Lifters.— The depth which sugar beets extend 
into the soil has made necessary a special type of plow 
for lifting them and breaking the tap roots without 
injuring the beets. Several different forms of plows 
designed for this purpose are on the market. In one 
of the best of these types the implement does not re- 
move the beets from the soil, but simply lifts them 
sufficiently to break the root connections, after which 
they may be pulled up by hand and the tops removed. 



THRASHING MACHINERY 

In the modern thrashing machine the grain is con- 
veyed to a cylinder, where it is shelled from the head 
by the passage of the straw between the cylinder and 
what is known as a concave. From the cylinder the 
straw passes over straw racks to the stacker and as the 
straw passes back over the racks, the thrashed grain 
sifts down through screens where a blast of air from 
a fan blows out the dust and fine chaff. From the 
screens the grain passes to what is known as the auger, 
by means of which it is removed from the machine. The 
capacity of a thrashing machine is indicated by the 
width of the cylinder and the width of the machine 
proper. A medium-sized machine will require for its 
operation a 15- or a 16-H. P. engine, and will have a 
capacity of 500 to 1,000 bu. of wheat per day, or double 
that quantify of oats. 

Bean and Pea Thrashers.— Where beans and peas are 
grown extensively, special thrashers are often used to 
separate the grain. These differ from the grain thrashers 
in having two cylinders operated at different speeds. 



IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 



353 



The vines first pass through a low-speed cylinder that 
thrashes out the dry pods and then through a more 
rapidly revolving cylinder to remove the seeds from the 
damp pods. These machines are usually provided with 
a recleaner and a clod crusher to remove dirt that may 
be adhering to the vines. 

Clover Huller.— The clover huller operates on the same 
principle as the grain thrasher, except that it is pro- 
vided with an additional hulling cylinder. The first 
cylinder removes the heads and thrashes out a part of 
the seed. The heads are then separated from the stems 
and chaff and passed to the hulling cylinder, which 
removes the seeds from the pods. The separation of 
the seed from the straw and chaff is accomplished in 
the same manner as in the grain thrasher. 



MISCELLANEOUS FARM IMPLEMENTS 

Manure Spreaders.-At the present time there are 
several successful manure spreaders on the market. The 
capacity of spreaders is usually stated in bushels, and 
the rate of speed is designated as tons per acre. The 
ordinarv two-horse spreader is usually rated at 70 bu. 
Some spreaders are equipped with lime distributors. 
This attachment consists of a box or hood that fits down 
over the beater of the machine and prevents the fine 
dust of the lime from being blown away. 

The greatest advantage from using a manure spreader 
comes from the manner in which the machine pulverizes 
and spreads the manure. The fineness and evenness of 
the spreading has much to do with the crop grown, and 
to be effective the spreader must break fhe lumps into 
pieces and spread the manure evenly over the ground. 
The increase in crop production resulting from the 
manure spreader will usually pay for the implement in 
one season's use, to say nothing of the labor saved. 

Sprayers.— By proper spraying a very large part of 
the annual loss caused by insects and fungi to fruit 
23 



354 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 

and vegetable plants can be prevented. To do this work 
effectively, spraying machines must be employed. The 
kind of spraying outfit to use will depend entirely on 
how much work is to be done. For the home garden or 
small orchard, hand sprayers are satisfactory. Several 
types of hand sprayers are on the market, from the small 
bucket pumps to knapsack sprayers that are carried on 
the back of the operator. 

What are known as barrel spray outfits are satis- 
factory for an orchard of, say, 5 or 6 A., or for a garden 
of about the same size. These consist essentially of a 
force pump inserted either into the end or into the side 
of a barrel that contains the spray solution. Some kind 
of agitator for keeping the spray mixture in motion 
should also be a part of the equipment. 

An outfit with a double-action force pump is used for 
orchards of, say, from 6 to 15 A. This double-action pump 
can be mounted on skids and the spray material pumped 
through a hose from a barrel standing beside the pump. 

For a large orchard or garden, power spray outfits of 
some kind are necessary. These consist essentially of 
a large pump, a tank of some kind for holding the spray 
material, and some source of power. This power is 
generally furnished by a gasoline engine. 



CARE OF FARM IMPLEMENTS AND 
MACHINERY 

The total value of the machinery on the farms of the 
United States is more than three-quarters of a billion 
dollars, and, in addition to this amount vast sums are 
expended each year in adding to this investment by the 
purchase of new machines and in the repair of old 
machinery. The factories of this country produce farm 
machinery each year to the value of about $100,000,000, 
of which about $16,000,000 worth is exported, leaving a 
balance of $84,000,000 that is purchased by the American 
farmer. 



IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 355 

From a study of these figures, it is easy to see that 
a very great saving would come to the farmers of this 
country if by careful operation and proper care the life 
of each machine could be extended for a term of years. 
The profit from this extended term of service will be 
realized by the greater durability and the increased 
efficiency that comes from proper care and expert 
management. 

The care of farm machinery naturally comes under 
two heads: (1) the proper handling of the machinery 
while in operation in the field, and (2) the proper care 
of the machines when not in use. 

The driver or operator of any piece of machinery 
should have a thorough knowledge of the working parts 
of the machine that he is using and should be able to 
detect the first indications of loose parts or lack of 
adjustment. A loose bolt or lack of adjustment of 
parts may in a very short time result in permanent 
injury to the machine and an expensive delay in the 
work. Very often the delay is more expensive than the 
repair, especially if the break occurs during harvest. 
Such a break often necessitates a trip to the shop, which 
consumes time during which the help is idle and the 
crop is suffering. 

Much of this delay and annoyance can be avoided by 
having on the farm a small shop in which all minor 
repairs can be made. In fact, such a shop with a modest 
supply of blacksmith and carpenter tools should be a 
part of the equipment of every farm. The man who 
has any mechanical ability will soon learn to use such 
tools and be able to attend to all minor repairs and 
thus keep his machinery in a high state of efficiency. 
The shop should be located in a small building well 
apart from the barn on account of the danger of fire 
from the forge. It need not be a separate building, how- 
ever, but may be built in connection with a wagon or a 
scale shed. Some means should be provided for heating 
the shop in winter. 



356 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 

The following tools will be found sufficient to equip 
a shop for all ordinary repair work. Other tools, of 
course, may be desirable, but they are not absolutely 
necessary. A statement of the average cost is also given. 

Wood-Working Tools 

Saw $2.00 

Hatchet 50 

Draw shave 50 

Jack plane 75 

Ratchet brace 1.25 

Bits 2.00 

Chisels 75 

Oil stone 50 

Square 75 

Rule 25 

Screwdrivers 25 

Total $9.50 

Iron-Working Tools 

Forge or blower $5.00 

Anvil 6.00 

Tongs, 2 pairs 75 

Hand hammer 50 

Sledge hammer 1.00 

Vise 5.00 

Small tools 2.00 

Total $20.25 

Total cost of all tools, $29.75. 

The presence of a shop with the above equipment will 
in a single season often effect a saving of an amount 
sufficient to pay for the entire list of tools, to say noth- 
ing of the satisfaction that is derived from being able 
to have the machinery of the farm always in good 
working order. 

The lack of durability in farm machinery is often due 
to the fact that the machines are placed in the hands of 
ignorant or inexperienced men who are not familiar 
with the operation and are therefore not capable of 
handling them properly. 



IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 357 

All machines when not in use should be properly 
housed and protected from the weather. A season with- 
out shelter detracts more from the value of a machine 
than the wear caused by its use during the same season. 
It is a well-known fact that the iron and steel parts of 
a machine rust when exposed to the weather. This 
results in a gradual destruction of these materials and 
greatly interferes with the working of the machine when 
it is put in use. Also rusting results in loss of 
efificiency and a gradual weakening of the parts. From 
the financial side of the subject it pays well to care 
for and house farm implements. A well-regulated farm 
of, say, 160 A., for its successful operation, should have 
at least the following implements, which cost approx- 
imately the sum named: 

1 grain binder $125.00 

1 mower 45.00 ~ 

1 gang prow 50.00 

1 walking plow 12.00- 

2 cultivators 40.00- 

1 disk pulverizer 25.00' 

2 farm wagons 100.00 

1 smoothing harrow 18.00- 

1 planter 35.00 • 

1 seeder 50.00 ■ 

1 manure spreader 100.00 

1 hay loader 45.00 

1 hay rake 20.00' 

1 light road wagon 60.00 

1 buggy 75.00 . 

Total $800.CO 

This makes a total of $800, assuming that all the 
machinery is new. For $200 a very convenient tool shed 
can be built that by a little careful planning can be 
made to shelter all of the above machinery very satis- 
factorily, especially if a floor is provided on a level with 
the eaves by which means considerable room can be 
made for some of the implements which can be easily 
taken apart, and for parts removed from some of the 



358 IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY 

larger ones. Assume that a man starts farming with 
$800 invested in implements, and that if these imple- 
ments are sheltered and well cared for they will 
last 10 yr. and if not sheltered they will last 
only 5 yr. If the implements stand out in the 
weather it costs $800 more to purchase a new set of 
implements at the end of 5 yr. The compound 
interest on this amount for 5 yr. at 5% amounts to 
about $215, or, the extra amount of money paid out for 
machinery, with its accrued interest, equals $1,015. If 
our tool shed costs $200, the compound interest on this 
amount for 10 yr. at 5% equals $125, or the shed 
may be co.isidered to cost $325. After paying the ex- 
penses for the shed, it leaves at the end of 10 yr. 
a balance of $690.40 in favor of housing the machinery, 
and the shed is perhaps good for 10 yr. more. This 
does not take into consideration the saving in the cost 
•of repairs. 

It is very poor economy to buy good tools and convert 
them into poor ones by the lack of care. This is 
especially true of plows. In order to do good work, a 
plow must scour properly, and in order to do this the 
moldboards are made very hard and given a high polish. 
When plows are left in the soil or exposed to the 
weather the polished surface soon becomes pitted with 
rust and its scouring qualities are lost unti>«a new 
polish can be obtained. Plows left in the field over 
night should have the polished surfaces covered with 
grease or oil. Between seasons, plows should be prop- 
erly housed in the barn or in a tool shed and the 
polished surface covered with paint or grease. Paint is 
to be preferred, because mice and rats are apt to remove 
the grease before spring. 

Rainy days and spare time during the winter season 
should be devoted to the inspection and repair of all 
machinery. For this reason the tool shed or storage 
room should be light and machines so placed that they 
are readily accessible. At this time all bolts should be 



MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 359 

tightened, the paint renewed on the wooden parts and 
all bearings thoroughly cleaned and oiled. If this is 
done much valuable time will be saved later during the 
busy season when the tools are in almost constant 
demand. 

The man who expends money in the proper housing 
and in care of his machinery will find that it will all 
come back to him in the lengthened life of his ma- 
chines, in the reduced cost of repairs, and in the satis- 
faction derived from having his machinery always in 
good order. 

MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL 
TABLES 

QUANTITY OF SEED REQUIRED PER ACRE 

Kind of Seed Quantity 

Alfalfa, broadcasted 20 to 25 lb. 

Alfalfa, in drills 15 to, 20 lb. 

Artichokes 6 to 8 bu. 

Asparagus 4 to 5 lb. 

Barley 8 to 10 pk. 

Barley and peas, each 1 to 2 bu. 

Beans, dwarf, in drills I5 bu. 

Beans, field, small variety 2 to 3 pk. 

Beans, field, large variety 5 to 6 pk. 

Beans, pole, in drills 10 to 12 qt. 

Beet 4 to 6 lb. 

Beggar weed, for forage 5 to 6 lb. 

Beggar weed, for hay 8 to 10 lb. 

Bent grass 1 to 2 bu. 

Blue grass 25 lb. 

Brome grass, alone for hay 12 to 15 lb. 

Brome grass, alone for pasture 15 to 20 lb. 

Broom com 3 pk. 

Broom com, for seed 1 pk. 

Buckwheat 3 to 5 pk. 

Bur clover 12 lb. 

Cabbage I to 1 lb. 

Carrot 4 to 6 lb. 

Chicory 1 to li lb. 

Clover, Alsike, alone for forage 8 to 15 lb. 

Clover, Alsike, on wheat or rye 4 to 6 lb. 

Clover, Crimson 12 to 15 lb. 

Clover, Japan 12 lb. 



360 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 

Table— (Coiitimicd) 
Kind of Seed Quantity 

Clover, Mammoth 12 to 15 lb. 

Clover, Red, alone for forage 16 lb. 

Clover, Red, on small grain 8 to 14 lb. 

Clover, Sweet (Melilotus) 2 to 4 pk. 

Clover, White 10 to 12 lb. 

Clover, Yellow 3 to 5 lb. 

Corn, in hills 6 to 10 qt. 

Corn, for silage 9 to 11 qt. 

Cotton 1 to 3 bu. 

Cowpeas 1 to 1^ bu. 

Cowpeas, in drills with corn 5 to 1 bu. 

Cowpeas, for seed .3 pk. 

Cucumber, in hills 2 lb. 

Cress, water, in drills 2 to 3 lb. 

Cress, upland 2 to 3 lb. 

Eggplant, for 1,000 plants 1 oz. 

Field pea, small variety 2^ bu. 

Field pea, large variety 3 to 3| bu. 

Flax, for seed 2 to 3 pk. 

Flax, for fiber 1§ to 2 bu. 

Grass, for lawns 2 to 4 bu. 

Hemp, broadcasted 3| to 4 pk. 

Hungarian grass, for hay 2 pk. 

Hungarian grass, for seed 1 pk. 

Johnson grass 1 to 1| bu, 

Kafir com, in drills 3 to 6 lb. 

Kafir corn, for fodder 10 to 12 lb. 

Kale 2 to 4 lb. 

Kohlrabi 4 to 5 lb. 

Lettuce 20 to 30 oz. 

Lupine 1^ to 2 bu. 

Mangels 5 to 8 lb. 

Meadow fescue 12 to 15 lb. 

Millet, barnyard, in drills 1 to 2 pk. 

Millet, foxtail, in drills 2 to 3 pk. 

Millet, German, for seed 1 pk. 

Millet, Pearl, for soiling 4 lb. 

Millet, Pearl, for hay 8 to 10 lb. 

Milo 5 lb. 

Muskmelon, in hills 2 to 3 lb. 

Mustard, broadcasted ^ bu. 

Oat grass. Tall 30 lb. 

Oats 2 to 3 bu. 

r. , ■, rOats, 2bu. 

Oats and peas {^^^^ i bu. 

Onion, in drills 5 to 6 lb. 

Onion, for sets 30 lb. 

Onion sets 6 to 12 lb. 

Orchard grass 12 to 15 lb. 



MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 361 

Table — (Continued) 
Kind of Seed Quantity 

Parsnip 4 to 8 lb. 

Pop com 3 lb. 

Potatoes, cut tubers 6 to 20 bu. 

Pumpkin 4 lb. 

Rape, in drills 2 to 4 lb. 

Rape, broadcasted 4 to 8 lb. 

Radish, in drills 8 to 10 lb. 

Red top 12 to 15 lb. 

Rice 1 to 3 bu. 

Rutabaga 3 to 5 lb. 

Rye, early 3 to 4 pk. 

Rye, late 6 to 8 pk. 

Rye, for forage 3 to 4 pk. 

Rye grass 2 to 3 bu. 

Sage, in drills 8 to 10 lb. 

Sainfoin 40 lb. 

Salsify 8 to 10 lb. 

Sand lucerne, broadcasted 15 lb. 

Sheep's fescue 2i to 3 bu. 

Sorghum, for forage 1^ to 2 bu. 

Sorghum, for seed or syrup 2 to 5 lb. 

Sorghum, saccharine, for silage 6 to 25 lb. 

Sorghum and peas, each f pk. 

Soybeans, in drills 2 to 3 pk. 

Soybeans, broadcasted 1 to 1^ bu. 

Spinage 10 to 12 lb. 

Spurry 6 to 8 qt. 

Spurry, for seed 4 qt. 

Squash, bush, in hills 4 to 6 lb. 

Squash, running, in hills 3 to 4 lb. 

Sugar beet 15 to 20 lb. 

Sugar cane 4 T. of cane 

Sunflower 10 to 15 lb. 

Sweet potatoes 1| to 4 bu. 

Teosinte 1 to 3 lb. 

Timothy 15 to 25 lb. 

Timothy and clover { Tj-ot^hy. ■;•■■■;;■■■■.•;■ | »• 

Tomato, for transplanting \\h. 

Turnip, broadcast 2 to 4 lb. 

Turnip, in drills ] lb. 

Turnip, hybrid 3 to 5 lb. 

Velvet bean J to 4 pk. 

Vetch, Hairy, in drills 1 bu. 

Vetch, Hairy, broadcasted 1? bu 

V^tch, kidney 18 to 22 lb. 

Vetch, spring f pk. 

Watermelon, in hills 4 to 5 lb. 

Wheat 6 to 9 pk. 



362 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 



MIXTURES RECOMMENDED FOR 1 A. OF 

MEADOW 
Mixture Pounds 

No. 1: 

Timothy 8 

Red clover 8 

No. 2: 

Timothy 8 

Red clover 6 

Alsike clover 2 

No. 3: 

Red top 13 

Orchard grass 18 

Meadow fescue 9 

Red clover 4 

No. 4: 

Timothy 8 

Red clover 4 

Alsike clover 2 

Kentucky blue grass 2 

Red top 2 



MIXTURES RECOMMENDED FOR PERMANENT 
PASTURES 

For fertile land: Pounds 

Timothy 8 to 12 

Kentucky blue grass 4 to 6 

Meadow fescue 1 to 4 

Orchard grass 1 to 4 

R.ed clover 6 

Alsike clover 3 

White clover 1 to 2 

For rather poor land : 

Timothy 8 to 12 

Red top 4 

Canadian blue grass 4 

Red clover 6 

Alsike clover 3 

White clover 1 

For wet pasture: 

Red top 14 

Alsike clover 8 

Creeping bent grass 6 

Perennial rye grass 2 



MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 363 



NUMBER OF PLANTS REQUIRED TO 


SET 1 A. 


OF GROUND AT GIVEN DISTANCES 


Distance 


Plants 


Distance 


Plants 


1 in.X 6 in. 


1,045,440 


12 in.X 15 in. 


34,848 


1 in.X Sin. 


784,080 


12 in. X 18 in. 


29,040 


1 in.X 10 in. 


627,269 


12 in.X 20 in. 


26,136 


1 in.X 12 in. 


522.720 


12 in.X 30 in. 


17,424 


2 in.X 6 in. 


522,720 


12 in.X 42 in. 


12,446 


2 in. X 8 in. 


392,040 


12 in. X 54 in. 


9,680 


2 in.X 10 in. 


313,632 


15 in.X 15 in. 


27,878 


2 in.X 12 in. 


261.360 


15 in.X IS in. 


23,232 


3 in.X 6 in. 


348,480 


15 in.X 20 in. 


20,908 


3 in.X 8 in. 


261,360 


15 in.X 24 in. 


17,424 


3 in.X 10 in. 


209,088 


15 in.X 30 in. 


13,939 


3 in.X 12 in. 


174,240 


15 in.X 36 in. 


11,616 


4 in. X 6 in. 


261,360 


15 in.X 42 in. 


9,953 


4 in. X 8 in. 


196.020 


15 in.X 48 in. 


8.712 


4 in.X 10 in. 


156,816 


15 in.X 54 in. 


7,744 


4 in.X 12 in. 


130,680 


15 in.X 60 in. 


6,969 


5 in.X 6 in. 


209,088 


18 in.X 18 in. 


19,360 


5 in. X 8 in. 


156,816 


18 in.X 20 in. 


17,424 


5 in. X 10 in. 


125,452 


IS in.X 24 in. 


14,520 


5 in.X 12 in. 


104,544 


18 in.X 30 in. 


11,616 


6 in.X 6 in. 


174,240 


18 in.X 36 in. 


9,680 


6 in.X 8 in. 


130,680 


18 in.X 42 in. 


8.297 


6 in.X 10 in. 


104,544 


IS in.X 48 in. 


7,260 


6 in.X 12 in. 


87,120 


18 in.X 54 in. 


6.453 


7 in.X 7 in. 


128,013 


18 in.X 60 in. 


5,808 


7 in.X 8 in. 


112,011 


20 in.X 20 in. 


15,681 


7 in.X 10 in. 


89,609 


20 in.X 24 in. 


13.168 


7 in. X 12 in. 


74,674 


20 in.X 30 in. 


10.454 


8 in.X 8 in. 


98,010 


20' in.X 36 in. 


8,712 


8 in.X 10 in. 


78,408 


20 in.X 42 in. 


7,467 


8 in.X 12 in. 


65,340 


20 in.X 48 in. 


6,534 


9 in.X 9 in. 


77,440 


20 in.X 54 in. 


5.308 


9 in.X 10 in. 


69,696 


20 in.X 60 in. 


5,227 


9 in.X 12 in. 


58,080 


1 ft.X 1 ft. 


43.560 


10 in.X 10 in. 


62,726 


1 ft.X 2 ft. 


21,780 


10 in.X 12 in. 


52.272 


1 ft.X 3 ft. 


14,520 


10 in.X 15 in. 


41,817 


1 ft.X 4 ft. 


10.890 


10 in.X 18 in. 


34,848 


1 ft.X 5 ft. 


8,712 


10 in.X 20 in. 


31,362 


1 ft. X 6 ft. 


7,260 


10 in.X 24 in. 


26,132 


1 ft. X 7 ft. 


6.223 


10 in. X 30 in. 


20,908 


1 ft. X 8 ft. 


5.445 


10 in.X 36 in. 


17,424 


1 ft.X 9 ft. 


4,840 


10 in.X 42 in. 


14.935 


1 ft.X 10 ft. 


4,356 


10 in.X 48 in. 


13,068 


1 ft.X 11 ft. 


3.960 



364 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 

Table — (Continued) 



Distance 


Plants 


Distance 


1 ft. X 12 ft. 


3,630 


6 ft. X 12 ft. 


2ft.X 2 ft. 


10.890 


7ft.X 7 ft. 


2ft.X 3 ft. 


7,260 


7 ft.X 8 ft. 


2ft.X 4 ft. 


5,445 


7ft.X 9 ft. 


2ft.X 5 ft. 


4,356 


7 ft.X 10 ft. 


2ft.X 6 ft. 


3,630 


7 ft.Xll ft. 


2ft.X 7 ft. 


3,111 


7 ft.X 12 ft. 


2ft.X 8 ft. 


2,722 


8 ft.X 8 ft. 


2ft.X 9 ft. 


2,420 


Sft.X 9 ft. 


2 ft. X 10 ft. 


2,178 


8 ft. X 10 ft. 


2ft.Xll ft. 


1,980 


8 ft.Xll ft. 


2ft.X12ft. 


1,815 


8 ft.X 12 ft. 


3ft.X 3 ft. 


4,840 


9 ft.X 9 ft. 


3ft.X 4 ft. 


3,630 


9 ft.X 10 ft. 


3ft.X 5 ft. 


2,904 


9 ft.X 11 ft. 


3ft.X 6 ft. 


2,420 


9 ft.X 12 ft. 


3ft.X 7 ft. 


2,074 


9 ft.X 14 ft. 


Sft.X 8 ft. 


1,815 


9 ft.X 15 ft. 


3ft.X 9 ft. 


1,613 


9 ft.X 18 ft. 


3 ft. X 10 ft. 


1,452 


9 ft.X 20 ft. 


3 ft. X 11 ft. 


1,320 


10 ft.X 10 ft. 


3 ft. X 12 ft. 


1,210 


10 ft.X 12 ft. 


4ft.X 4 ft. 


2,722 


10 ft.X 15 ft. 


4ft.X 5 ft. 


2,178 


10 ft.X 18 ft. 


4ft.X 6 ft. 


1,185 


10 ft.X 20 ft. 


4ft.X 7 ft. 


1,556 


10 ft.X 24 ft. 


4ft.X 8 ft. 


1,361 


10 ft.X 30 ft. 


4ft.X 9 ft. 


1.210 


10 ft.X 36 ft. 


4 ft. X 10 ft. 


1,089 


10 ft.X 42 ft. 


4ft.Xll ft. 


990 


10 ft.X 45 ft. 


4 ft. X 12 ft. 


907 


10 ft.X 48 ft. 


5ft.X 5 ft. 


1,742 


10 ft.X 54 ft. 


5ft.X 6 ft. 


1,452 


10 ft.X 60 ft. 


Sft.X 7ft. 


1,244 


12 ft. X 12 ft. 


5ft.X 8 ft. 


1,089 


12 ft.X 15 ft. 


Sft.X 9ft. 


968 


12 ft.X 18 -ft. 


Sft.X 10 ft. 


871 


12 ft.X 20 ft. 


Sft.X 11 ft. 


792 


12 ft.X 24 ft. 


Sft.X 12 ft. 


726 


12 ft.X 30 ft. 


6ft.X 6 ft. 


1.210 


12 ft.X 36 ft. 


6ft.X 7 ft. 


1,037 


12 ft.X 42 ft. 


6ft.X 8 ft. 


907 


12 ft.X 48 ft. 


6ft.X 9 ft. 


806 


12 ft.X 54 ft. 


6 ft. X 10 ft. 


726 


12 ft.X 60 ft. 


6 ft.Xll ft. 


660 


15 ft.X 15 ft. 



193 



M ISC ELLA XEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 365 
Table — (Continued) 



Distance 


Plants 


Distance 


Plants 


1 5 ft. X 18 ft. 


161 


30 ft. X 30 ft. 


48 


15 ft. X 20 ft. 


145 


30 ft. X 36 ft. 


40 


15 ft. X 24 ft. 


121 


30 ft. X 42 ft. 


34 


15 ft. X 30 ft. 


96 


30 ft. X 48 ft. 


30 


15 ft. X 36 ft. 


80 


30 ft. X 54 ft. 


26 


15 ft. X 42 ft. 


69 


30 ft. X 60 ft. 


24 


15 ft. X 48 ft. 


60 


36 ft. X 36 ft. 


33 


15 ft. X 54 ft. 


53 


36 ft. X 42 ft. 


28 


15 ft. X 60 ft. 


48 


36 ft. X 48 ft. 


25 


ISft.XlSft. 


134 


36 ft. X 54 ft. 


22 


18 ft. X 20 ft. 


121 


36 ft. X 60 ft. 


20 


18 ft. X 24 ft. 


100 


38 ft. X 38 ft. 


30 


18ft.X30ft. 


80 


38 ft. X 40 ft. 


28 


18 ft. X 36 ft. 


67 


38 ft. X 42 ft. 


27 


18 ft. X 42 ft. 


57 


38 ft. X 48 ft. 


23 


18 ft. X 48 ft. 


50 


38 ft. X 50 ft. 


22 


18 ft. X 54 ft. 


44 


38 ft. X 54 ft. 


21 


18 ft. X 60 ft. 


40 


38 ft. X 60 ft. 


19 


20 ft. X 20 ft. 


108 


40 ft.X40 ft. 


27 


20 ft. X 24 ft. 


90 


40 ft. X 42 ft. 


25 


20 ft. X 30 ft. 


72 


40 ft.X4S ft. 


22 


20 ft. X 36 ft. 


60 


40 ft. X 50 ft. 


21 


20ft.X42ft. 


51 


40ft.X.54ft. 


20 


20 ft. X 48 ft. 


45 


40 ft. X 60 ft. 


18 


20 ft. X 54 ft. 


40 


42 ft. X 42 ft. 


24 


20 ft. X 60 ft. 


36 


42 ft. X 48 ft. 


21 


24ft.X24ft. 


75 


42 ft. X. 54 ft. 


19 


24 ft. X 30 ft. 


60 


42 ft. X 60 ft. 


17 


24 ft. X 36 ft. 


50 


48 ft. X 48 ft. 


18 


24 ft. X 42 ft. 


43 


48 ft. X 54 ft. 


16 


24 ft. X 48 ft. 


37 


4Sft.X60ft. 


15 


24 ft.X54 ft. 


33 


50 ft.X50 ft. 


17 


24 ft. X 60 ft. 


30 







366 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 

AVERAGE TIME REQUIRED FOR GARDEN SEED 
TO GERMINATE 



Crop 


Days 


Crop 


Days 


Bean 


5 to 10 


Lettuce 


6 to 8 


Beet 


7 to 10 

5 to 10 

12 to 18 




7 to 10 


Cabbage 


Pea 


6 to 10 


Carrot 


Parsnip 


10 to 20 


Cauliflower 


5 to 10 


Pepper 


9 to 14 


Celery 


10 to 20 


Salsify 


7 to 12 


Com 


5 to 8 


Radish 


3 to 6 


Cucumber 


6 to 10 


Tomato 


6 to 12 


Endive 


5 to 10 


Turnips 


4 to 8 



TIME REQUIRED FOR MATURITY OF DIFFERENT 
VEGETABLE CROPS FROM SEEDING 



Crops 


Days 


Crops 


Days 


Beans, string. . 


45 to 65 


Lettuce 


65 


Beans, shell . . . 


65 to 70 


Onions 


135 to 150 


Beets, turnip . . 


65 


Peppers 


140 to 150 


Beets, Long 




Radishes 


30 to 45 


Blood 


150 


Squashes, sum- 




Cabbage, early 


105 


mer 


60 to 65 


Cabbage, late. 


150 


Squashes, win- 




Cauliflower 


110 


ter 


125 


Corn 


75 
150 to 160 


Tomatoes 

Turnip 


150 


Eggplant 


60 to 70 



COMPARISON OF BAUME AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY 

HYDROMETER READINGS FOR LIQUIDS 

HEAVIER THAN WATER 



Baum6 


Specific 


Baum6 


Specific 


Degrees 


Gravity 


Degrees 


Gravity 


1 


1.007 


24 


1.198 


2 


1.014 


25 


1.208 


3 


1.021 


26 


1.218 


4 


1.028 


27 


1.229 


4.3 


1.030 


28 


1.239 


15 


1.115 


29 


1.250 


16 


1.124 


30 


1.261 


17 


1.133 


31 


1.272 


18 


1.142 


32 


1.283 


19 


1.151 


33 


1.295 


20 


1.160 


34 


1.306 


21 


1.169 


35 


1.318 


22 


1.179 


36 


1.330 


23 


1.188 







CAPACITY OF CIRCULAR SILOS AND QUANTITY 

OF SILAGE TO BE FED TO LOWER THE 

SURFACE 2 IN. DAILY 



Inside 
Diameter 


Depth 


Capacity 


Acreage of 
Corn to 


Quantity 
to be Fed 


Feet 


Feet 


Tons 


Fill. 15 T. 


Daily 






to the Acre 


Pounds 


10 


28 


42 


2.8 


525 


10 


30 


47 


3.0 


525 


10 


32 


51 


3.4 


525 


10 


34 


56 


3.7 


525 


10 


38 


65 


4.3 


525 


10 


40 


70 


4.6 


525 


12 


28 


61 


4.1 


755 


12 


30 


67 


4.5 


755 


12 


32 


74 


5.0 


755 


12 


34 


80 


5.3 


755 


12 


36 


87 


5.8 


755 


12 


38 


94 


6.4 


755 


12 


40 


101 


7.3 


755 


14 


28 


83 


5.5 


1030 


14 


30 


91 


6.1 


1030 


14 


32 


100 


6.7 


1030 


14 


34 


109 


7.2 


1030 


14 


36 


118 


7.9 


1030 


14 


38 


128 


8.5 


1030 


14 


40 


138 


9.2 


1030 


16 


28 


108 


7.2 


1340 


16 


32 


131 


8.7 


1340 


16 


34 


143 


9.5 


1340 


16 


36 


155 


10.3 


1340 


16 


38 


167 


11.1 


1340 


16 


40 


180 


12.0 


1340 


18 


30 


151 


10.0 


1700 


18 


32 


166 


11.0 


1700 


18 


34 


181 


12.0 


1700 


18 


36 


196 


13.2 


1700 


18 


38 


212 


14.1 


1700 


18 


40 


229 


15.2 


1700 


18 


42 


246 


16.4 


1700 


18 


44 


264 


17.6 


1700 


18 


46 


282 


18.8 


1700 


20 


30 


187 


12.5 


2100 


20 


32 


205 


13.6 


2100 


20 


34 


224 


15.0 


2100 


20 


36 


243 


16.2 


2100 


20 


40 


281 


18.8 


2100 


20 


42 


300 


20.0 


2100 


20 


44 


320 


21.3 


2100 


20 


46 


340 


22.6 


2100 


20 


48 


361 


24.0 


2100 


20 


50 


382 


25.5 


2100 



367 



368 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 



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MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES SeO' 



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370 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 



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s 


s;nj^ AJO310IH 


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sauaaqasooQ 


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xl^apV t"00 


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U3 O iCiO »CiiO«0 


pajisnqun 'J^a u] u-ioO 




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MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 371 



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372 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 



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g 


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panaqsun 'SBaj uaajQ 










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papaduj^ 'sanDB9tj papQ 


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papaj 'saqoBaj pauQ 


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MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 373 



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374 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 



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MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 375 

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376 MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 



Notes Concerning 

^Not defined. 

^Small white beans, 60 lb. 

^Green apples. [wurzel. 

*Sugar beets and mangel 

^Shelled beans, 60 lb. ; vel- 
vet beans, 78 lb. 

^White beans. 

^Wheat bran. 

^Green unshelled beans, 
56 lb. 

^English blue-grass seed, 
22 lb. ; native blue-grass 
seed, 14 lb. 
^**Also castor seed. 
"Soybeans, 58 lb. [30 lb. 
^^Green unshelled beans, 
^^Soybeans 
"Free from hulls. 
^^Commercially dry, for all 

hard woods. 
^®Fifteen lb. commercially 

dry, for all soft woods. 
"Standard weight in bor- 
ough of Greensburg. 
^^Dried beans. 
^''Red and white. 
20Corn in ear, 70 lb. until 

Dec. 1 next after grown; 

68 lb. thereafter. 
^^Sweet corn 
^-On the cob. 
-^Indian corn in ear. 
2*Unwashed plastering hair, 

8 lb.; washed plastering 

hair, 4 lb. 
2^Corn in ear, from Nov. 1 

to May 1 following, 70 

lb.; 68 lb. from May 1 to 

Nov. 1. 
^^Indian-corn meal. 
^^Cracked corn. 
28Shelled. 
^^Free from hulls. 
^"Standard weight bu. corn 

meal, bolted or unbolted, 

48 lb. 
'^Except the seed of long 

staple cotton, of which 

the weight shall be 42 lb. 



Preceding Table 

3-Green unshelled corn, 
100 lb. 

^^Green cucumbers. 

3*See also "Popcorn," "In- 
dian corn," and "Kafir 
corn." 

^"Green peaches. 

^^Green pears. 

3'Malt rye. [i2 lb. 

3*Top sets; bottom sets, 

s^Shelled, 56 lb. 

""Shelled, dry. 

"^Strike measure. 

"^Bottom onion sets. 

"^German and American. 

"Shelled. 

"■''Peaches (peeled) ; un- 
peeled 32 lb. 

"^Cowpeas. 

"^Roasted; green 22 lb. 

"*Not stated whether peeled 
or unpeeled. 

"''Top onion sets. 

^"Including split peas. 

^^In the ear. 

J^Slacked lime, 40 lb. 

^^German, Missouri, and 
Tennessee millet seeds. 

^"Matured onions. 

^^Bottom onion sets, 32 lb. 

^'^Matured. 

"Matured pears, 56 lb.; 

dried pears, 26 lb. 
^^Black-eyed peas. 
^^Barley malt. 
^"Includes "Rice corn." 
^^"Rice corn." [seed. 

•'^Sorghum saccharatum 
'^Red top grass seed 
(chaff); fancy, 32 lb. 
6^Seed. 

^^Irish potatoes. 
^*'Free from hulls. 
6^Ground salt, 70 lb. 
^^India wheat, 46 lb. 
*^In some states herd's 
grass is a synonym for 
timothy; in other states, 
for Red top. 



MISCELLANEOUS AGRICULTURAL TABLES 377 

The states of Idaho, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming 
have no standard for bushel weights. 

LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL OF VARIOUS COM- 
MODITIES FOR WHICH BUSHEL WEIGHTS 
HAVE BEEN ADOPTED IN BUT ONE 
OR TWO STATES 

Alsike (or Swedish) seed, 60 lb. (Md. and Okla). 

Beggar weed seed, 62 lb. (Fla.) (Tenn.). 

Blackberries, 30 lb. (la.); 48 lb. (Tenn.); dried, 28 lb. 

Bernuida grass seed, 40 lb. (Okla.). 

Blueberries, 42 lb. (Minn.). 

Bromus inermus, 14 lb. (N. Dak.). 

Bur clover, in hulls, 8 lb. (N. C). 

Cabbage, 50 lb. (Tenn.). 

Canary seed, 60 lb. (Tenn.); 50 lb. (la.). 

Cantaloup melon, 50 lb. (Tenn.) 

Castor seed, 50 lb. (Md.). 

Cement, 80 lb. (Tenn.). 

Cherries, 40 lb. (la.); with stems, 56 lb. (Tenn.); with- 
out stems, 64 lb. (Tenn.). 

Chufa, 54 lb. (Fla.). 

Cotton seed, staple, 42 lb. (S. C). 

Culm, 80 lb. (Md.). 

Currants, 40 lb. (la. and Minn.). 

Feed, 50 lb. (Mass.). 

Fescue, seed of all the, except the Tall and Meadow 
fescue, 14 lb. (N. C). (N. C). 

Fescue, Tall and Meadow fescue grass seed, 24 lb. 

Grapes, 40 lb. (la.); with stems, 48 lb. (Tenn.); with- 
out stems, 60 lb. (Tenn.). 

Guavas, 54 lb. (Fla.). 

Hominy, 60 lb. (O.); 62 lb. (Tenn.). 

Horseradish, 50 lb. (Tenn.). 

Italian rye-grass seed, 20 lb. (Tenn.). 

Japan clover in hulls, 25 lb. (N. C). 

Johnson grass, 28 lb. (Ark.); 25 lb. (N. C). 

Kale, 30 lb. (Tenn.). 

Land plaster, 100 lb. (Tenn.). 

Lentils, 60 lb. (N. C). 

Lucerne, 60 lb. (N. C). 

Lupines, 60 lb. (N. C). 

Meadow seed, tall, 14 lb. (N. C). 

Meal (?), 46 lb. (Ala.); unbolted, 48 lb. (Ala.). 

Middlings, fine, 40 lb. (Ind.); coarse middlings, 30 lb. 
(Ind.). 

Millet, Japanese barnyard, 35 lb. (Mass. and N. H.). 

Mustard, 30 lb. (Tenn.). 

Mustard seed, 58 lb. (N. C). 



378 ARITHMETICAL TABLES 

Oat grass seed, 14 lb. (N. C). 

Oat grass seed, 14 lb. (N. C). (Mich.). 

Plums, 40 lb. (Fla.); 64 lb. (Tenn.): dried, 28 lb. 

Prunes, dried, 28 lb. (Ida.); green, 45 lb. (Ida.). 

Radish seed, 50 lb. (la.). 

Raspberries, 32 lb. (la. and Kan.); 48 lb. (Tenn.). 

Rhubarb, 50 lb. (Tenn.). 

Sage, 4 lb. (Tenn.). 

Salads, 30 lb. (Tenn.). 

Sand, 130 lb. (la.). 

Seed of brome grasses, 14 lb. (N. C), 

Spinage, 30 lb. (Tenn.). 

Strawberries, 32 lb. (la.); 48 lb. (Tenn.). 

Sugar cane seed (amber), 57 lb. (N. J.) 

Sunflower seed, 24 lb. (N. C). 

Teosinte, 59 lb. (N. C). 

Velvet grass seed, 7 lb. (Tenn.). 

Vetches, 60 lb. (N. C). 



ARITHMETICAL TABLES 



MEASURES OF EXTENSION 

Measures of extension are used in measuring lengths (dis- 
tances), surfaces (areas), and solids (volumes), and are divided, 
accordingly, into linear measure, square measure, and cubic 
measure. 

Linear measure has one dimension (length), square measure 
has two dimensions (length and breadth), and cubic measure 
has three dimensions (length, breadth, and thickness). 

LINEAR MEASURE 

12 inches (in.) =1 foot ft. 

3 feet =1 yard yd. 

5^ yards =1 rod rd. 

320 rods = 1 mile mi. 

in. ft. yd. rd. mi. 

12= 1 
36= 3 = 1 
198= 161= 5h= 1 
63,360 = 5,280 =1,760 =320 = 1 



ARITHMETICAL TABLES 379 

SQUARE MEASURE 

144 square inches (sq. in.) . , . . = 1 square foot sq. ft. 

9 square feet =1 square yard sq. yd. 

30} square yards =1 square rod sq. rd. 

160 square rods = 1 acre A. 

640 acres =1 square mile sq. mi. 

sq. in. sq.ft. sq. yd. sq. rd. A. sq. mi. 

144= 1 

1.296= 9 = 1 

39.204= 272i= 30|= 1 

6,272.640= 43.560 = 4.840 = 160 = 1 
4,014.489,600 = 27.878,400 = 3.097.600 = 102,400 = 640 = 1 

SURVEYORS' SQUARE MEASURE 

625 square links (sq. li.) =1 square rod sq. rd. 

16 square rods =1 square chain . . .sq. ch. 

10 square chains =1 acre A. 

640 acres =1 square mile . . . . sq. mi. 

36 square miles (6 miles square). . = 1 township Tp. 

A square measuring 208.71 ft. on each side contains 1 A. 
The following are the comparative sizes, in square yards, 
of acres in different countries: 

sq. yd. sq. yd. 

England and America 4,840 Amsterdam 9.722 

Scotland 6,150 Dantzic 6,650 

Ireland 7.840 France 11.960 

Hamburg 11.545 Prussia 3.053 

CUBIC MEASURE 

1.728 cubic inches (cu. in.) =1 cubic foot cu. ft. 

27 cubic feet =1 cubic yard cu. yd. 

128 cubic feet = 1 cord of wood. 

cu. in. cu. ft. cu. yd. 
1.728 = 1 
46.656 = 27 = 1 



380 



ARITHMETICAL TABLES 



MEASURES OF WEIGHT 
AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT 

16 ounces (oz.) =1 pound 

100 pounds =1 hundredweight. . 

20 hundredweight 1 

2.000 pounds ' ' ' ' ' 

oz. 

16 = 

1,600 = 

32,000 = 



.lb. 
.cwt. 



1 ton T. 



lb, 
1 
= 100 = 
2,000 = 



cwi. T. 



1 ton T. 



LONG-TON TABLE 

16 ounces (oz.) =1 pound 

28 pounds =1 quarter 

4 quarters = 1 hundredweight, 

20 hundredweight 1 

2,240 pounds J " * 

oz. lb. qr. cwt. T. 

16= 1 
448= 28= 1 
1,792= 112= 4= 1 
35,840 = 2,240 = 80 = 20 = 1 

TROY WEIGHT 

24 grains (gr.) =1 pennyweight 

20 pennyweights =1 ounce 

12 ounces = 1 pound 

gr. pwt. oz. lb. 
24= 1 
480= 20= 1 
5.760 = 240 = 12 = 1 

APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT 

20 grains (gr.) =1 scruple sc. 

3 scruples =1 dram dr. 

8 drams =1 ounce oz. 

12 ounces =1 pound lb. 

gr. 3 5 S ft) 
20= 1 
60= 3= 1 
480= 24= 8= 1 
5,760 = 288 = 96 = 12 = 1 



lb. 
qr. 
cwt. 



pwt. 

oz. 

lb. 



or 3 
or 5 
or S 
or ft 



ARITHMETICAL TABLES 381 



MEASURES OF CAPACITY 

LIQUID MEASURE 

4 gills (gi.) =1 pint pt. 

2 pints =1 quart qt. 

4 quarts =1 gallon gal. 

3U gallons =1 barrel bbl. 

aire s l ^^ hogshead hhd. 

63 gallons J 

gi. pt. qt. gal. bbl. hhd. 
4= 1 
8= 2= 1 
32= 8= 4= 1 
1,008 = 252 = 126 = 31§ = 1 
2.016 = 504 = 252 = 63 =2 = 1 

APOTHECARIES' FLUID MEASURE 

60 minims, or drops (TTL) =1 fluid dram £5 

8 fluid drams =1 fluid ounce f S 

16 fluid ounces =1 pint O. 

8 pints =1 gallon Cong. 

DRY MEASURE 

2 pints (pt.) =1 quart qt. 

8 quarts =1 peck pk. 

4 pecks =1 bushel bu. 

pt. qt. pk. bu. 

2= 1 
16= 8=1 
64 = 32 = 4 = 1 



MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 

METRIC EQUIVALENTS OF POUNDS, FEET, ETC. 

The government publishes the equivalents in pounds, etc. 
of the metric system, but the American shipper wants to 
know what the pounds, inches, feet, and gallons, to which 
he is accustomed, are in the metric system. The following is 
a convenient table showing the metric values of our measures. 
Some countries demand that the metric system should be 
used in the consular papers, and in most countries, especially 



382 



ARITHMETICAL TABLES 



in Latin-America, the consignees ask for the weights, etc. in 
the metric system. 



Pounds 



Kilos 



Pounds 



Kilos 



1 


= .4536 


2 


= .9072 


3 


= 1.3608 


4 


=1.8144 


5 


=2.2680 


6 . . 


=2.7216 


7 


=3.1751 


8 


=3.6287 


9 


=4.0823 


10 


= 4.536 


20 


= 9.072 


30 


= 13.608 


40. 


=18.144 


50 


=22.680 


1,000 kilos = 
1 inch 


= 1 metric ton (T 

Centimeters 
= 2.54 


1 foot 


= 30.48 


1 yard 


= 91.44 


2 feet 


= 60.96 


3 feet 


= 91.44 


4 feet . . . . 


=121.92 


5 feet 


= 152.40 


6 feet 


= 182.88 



60 =27.216 

70 =31.751 

80 =36.287 

90 =40.823 

100 = 45.36 

200 = 90.72 

300 = 136.08 

400 =181.44 

500 =226.80 

600 =272.16 

700 =317.51 

800 =362.87 

900 =408.23 

1,000 =453.60 

lelada metrico). 

Centimeters 

7 feet =213.36 

8 feet =243.84 

9 feet =274.32 

10 feet =304.80 

11 feet =335.28 

12 feet =365.76 

13 feet =396.24 

14 feet =426.72 



TABLE OF DISTANCES 

1 mile =5,280 ft.; 1,760 yd. 

320 rd.; 8 fur. 

1 furlong = 40 rd. 

1 league =3 mi. 

1 knot,* or nautical mile =6,080 ft.; or If mi. 



*A knot is really a measure of speed and not of distance; 
when used in this sense, it is equivalent to 1 nautical mile 
in 1 hour. Thus, a vessel traveling 20 nautical miles per hour 
has a speed of 20 knots. 



ARITHMETICAL TABLES 383 

1 nautical league. =3 nautical mi. 

1 fathom = 6 ft. 

1 meter = 3 ft. 3| in., nearly 

1 hand = 4 in. 

1 palm = 3 in. 

1 span = 9 in. 

1 cable's length = 240 yd. 

MEASURES OF VOLUME 

1 cubic foot = 1,728 cu. in. 

1 ale gallon = 282 cu. in. 

1 standard, or wine, gallon =231 cu. in. 

1 dry gallon = 268.8 cu. in. 

1 bushel =2,150.4 cu, in. 

1 British bushel =2,218.19 cu. in. 

1 cord of wood = 128 cu. ft. 

1 perch = 24.75 cu. ft. 

1 ton of round timber =40 cu. ft. 

1 ton of hewn timber = 50 cu. ft. 

Cylinders having the following dimensions in inches con- 
tain the measures stated, very closely; the diameters are 
given first: 

Gill = If in.X3 in. Gallon = 7 in.X 6 in. 

Pint =3Hn.X3in. 8 gallons =14 in.X 12 in. 

Quart =3^in.X6in. 10 gaUons. . . . = 14 in. X 15 in- 



NI e: NI O R AN D A 



NIKMORANDA 



25 



nie:m:orane>a 



NIKMLORANDA 



NIKMORANDA 



Promotion 
Advancement in Salary 

and 

Business Success 

Secured 
Through the 

GENERAL FARMING 

Soil Improvement 

Farm Crops 

Livestock and Dairying 

POULTRY FARMING 

Poultry Breeding 

COURSES OF INSTRUCTION 
OF THE 

International 
Correspondence Schools 

International Textbook 
Company, Proprietors 

SCRANTON, PA.. U. S. A. 

SEE FOLLOWING PAGES 



The Benefits oE an Agri- 
cultural Course 

The benefits to be derived from a Course in 
Agriculture in the I. C. S. are manifold, the 
most important, perhaps, is that it teaches the 
tiller of the soil to grow not only a better crop, 
but realize a greater production, as well as to 
do it with a great deal less of labor and expense, 
thereby making the tilling of the soil more of 
a pleasure than a drudge. Farmers, as well as 
others, are waking up to the truth that scien- 
tific farming is the only proper method to 
pursue, especially in these days of worn-out 
land, problems of drainage, and other things 
too numerous to mention. In this connection, 
your instruction on manures is worth the price 
of the whole Course. I might say the same 
of your instruction on drainage, etc. 

I have just put out twenty-five ParagonChest- 
nut Trees, and a quantity of Catalpa Speciosa, 
Bald Cypress, etc., and, in the proper prepara- 
tion of the soil to receive these trees, your 
instruction, of course, stood me in good stead. 
Ann also growing Ginseng, Golden Seal, Pink 
Root, Ladies' Slipper, and others of the so- 
called "special crops," on the same farm; the 
preparation of the soil for the successful grow- 
ing of such plants requires special consideration 
and study. I also have a problem of drainage 
on my hands, on the same farm, but, with the 
instruction given in your Agricultural Course, 
it will be a very easy matter to meet all the 
conditions. 

I have endeavored to make my letter brief, 
but, on account of the great scope or magni- 
tude of your Agricultural Course, it would be 
difficult to say it all upon a hundred sheets of 
paper of this size. 

Wayne Canfield, 
84 Madison St., Wilkes-Barre, Pa. 



SECURED A POSITION ON A POULTRY FARM 

Jack Chamberlain, Petoskey, Mich.: "Since taking up 
your Course in Poultry Farming I have been employed on a 
poultry farm, and my wages are 10 per cent, higher than ever 
before, due to the knowledge gained from your Course." 

WELL SATISFIED 

Phillip Becker, 1910 Prospect Ave., New York, N. Y.: 
" I desire to state that I find your Course in Agriculture all that 
I expected it would be. It not only explains everything, but 
tells what to do, when to do it, and how to do it. I am very 
well satisfied with the Course." 

MANAGING A LARGE PLANT 

Philip J. Roy, St. Joseph Academy, Tipton, Ind.: "From 
the knowledge gained from the lessons in your Poultry Farming 
Course that I have completed, I have been appointed man- 
ager of poultry farming for this institution, and as a special 
favor I ask all the assistance that the I. C. S. may see fit to 
give me to make my work a success. At present, I have 1,000 
eggs under incubation. The president and general manager 
of this institution have inspected my studies thus far and they 
have given me their confidence in my work; they think your 
Course so complete that one can be successful if your teach- 
ings are followed." 

FIT TO MANAGE A FARM 

J. H. Pennington, Pennington Gap, Va.: "My Course in 
Agriculture has been of great practical value to me and I am 
sure that any one who studies it will be fully able to manage a 
farm." 

NOW MANAGER 

Claude C. Rocke, Manager Hillair Farm, Sterlington, 
N. Y.: "I find the knowledge derived from your Course 
in Soil Improvement and Farm Crops of practical value in my 
business. I took up the Course with the idea of gaining all 
the information possible concerning agriculture, also the more 
advanced methods of farming. I now have charge of a gentle- 
man's estate, and there is seldom a day but some points of the 
Course are of benefit to me in my work." 
3 



Worth Many Times Its 
Cost 

I wish to express my gratitude to the faculty 
of the International Correspondence Schools 
for the assistance they have rendered me and 
the interest they have taken in my progress 
and success since I enlisted for a Course in Soil 
Improvement and Farm Crops. The Instruc- 
tion Papers are very lucid and cover every 
point of importance with the utmost care, 
thereby making it easy for a person to grasp 
the meaning of what is taught. I think any 
one who contemplates making farming his life 
vocation will find an International Correspond- 
ence Schools' Course in Agriculture worth many 
times the cost. 

William R. Halloway, 
River Side Farm, Newark, Md. 



MOST PRACTICAL 

Harold Brown, 1511 W. 8th St., Los Angeles, Cal.: "I 
think your Poultry Course is the most complete and practical 
I have ever seen, covering as it does every branch of the busi- 
ness thoroughly from start to finish." 



WE HELPED fflM OBTAIN A POSITION 

John Gowdey, Millville Poultry Farm, Millville, N. J.: 
"The Poultry Farming Course in which I enrolled last October 
is now nearly finished and I have found it to be an exceedingly 
Valuable Course, as it contains a great amount of very valuable 
information along the line of poultry raising — information 
which no one person could gain in even a lifetime of practical 
experience without such aid. I consider this Course one of 
the best investments of my life; and would not be without the 
information gained through it for many times the cost of the 
Scholarship. I wish also to thank your Students' Aid Depart- 
ment for the valuable assistance they have rendered in securing 
a position that I desired." 



SAVED HIM FROM FAILURE 

Jas. Archer Gurney, Charleston, S. C: "When I began 
studying the Poultry Farming Course for which I enrolled 
with the I. C. S. I had no idea there was so much to be learned 
about poultry. Had I attempted to go into the business prior 
to the study of this Course I would have made a grand failure. 
The knowledge gained from each one of your Instruction 
Papers is worth the price of the entire Course." 

NO HOBBY OR THEORY 

Marshall J. Lune, South Hill, B. C, Canada: "I found 
the Poultry Farming Course of the L C. S. to be simple, pointed, 
and accurate. I have been impressed with the fine judgment, 
sound business methods, and scientific research which stamps 
the author as a scientific and practical man of long experience. 
The subject matter is well chosen and carefully pruned of all 
hobbies and unproven theories." 

HIS COURSE PROFITABLE 

C. L. Law, 2036 W. 83d St., Cleveland, Ohio: "I have 
found my Poultry Farming Course very satisfactory. Pre- 
vious to enrolment with the I. C. S. I had studied poultry raising 
and had bred poultry to some extent; but I must say that your 
Course has been of great profit to me." 



Learned More in a Few 

Months Than in Six 

Years Previous 

The knowledge that I have gained since I 
started to study your Course in General Farm- 
ing has been of great assistance to me. I had 
6 years of practical farm experience previous 
to taking the Course, but I have learned more 
about farming in the few months that I have 
studied than in the 6 .years previous. The 
textbooks make everything so plain that any 
one with a common school education can easily 
understand them. I feel very confident that 
the Course will be very helpful to any one 
engaged in agricultural work. 

C. H. SlEMER, 

Bernardsville, N. J. 



CANNOT FAIL TO SUCCEED 

Bert White, Box 477, Burlingame, Kans.: "Any one- 
interested in poultry should invest in the Poultry Fanning 
Course with the I. C. S. From personal experience I can say 
that any one that will study the Course cannot fail to succeed. 
Each subject is well explained and easily understood. Since 
I began to study my Course the profits of my flock are rapidly 
increasing." 

MARKED SUCCESS 

Walter L. Harlan, 218 Center St., Mauch Chunk, Pa.: 
"After studying your Poultry Farming Course I can truthfully 
say that I made a marked success in raising and caring for 
poultry, and I will always recommend the Course to any one 
interested in the subject." 

mS COURSE BROUGHT SUCCESS 

Moses L. Kohen, Pueblo, Colo.: "I think the Poultry 
Farming Course issued by the I. C. S. is fine. As a result of 
studying it I have been able to raise a nice lot of chickens 
and I know that I could not have succeeded as I have without 
the information obtained through your Schools." 

mS COURSE PROFITABLE 

T. C. Threnhauser, Fair Haven, Pa.: "I cannot express 
my appreciation of the value of your Poultry Farming Course 
since the benefits derived are far beyond my anticipation. 
Since taking your Course I have spent some time at the gov- 
ernment experiment station. Their course in some respects 
is quite like yours, but it it not so extensive or so complete. 
I have been offered two positions to take charge of poultry 
farms, both of which I declined, because I can do much better 
by caring for my own poultry." 

mS COURSE A BENEFIT 

W. T. Courtney, Atlanta, Ga.: "I found the Agricultural 
Course to be of great benefit to me; in fact I know of no other 
way in which I could have gained the same practical informa- 
tion so readily. I was promoted to be superintendent of 
grounds of the Spelman Seminary. This threw a herd of dairy 
cows and several acres of land on my hands. Being practi- 
cally ignorant of such things I turned to agricultural liter- 
ature, but found nothing that helped me to systematize what 
I learned. I then decided to take your Course, and feel that 
I have learned more from it than would have been possible 
any other way. I have been uniformly successful in follow- 
ing out your instructions." 



A Course that Leads 
to Success 

I have found your Course in General Farm- 
ing to be simple, practical, and of the greatest 
value to a prospective farmer or stockman. 
A study of your Course is not only a mortgage 
lifter, but it will put a common-sense man in a 
position to be envied by his fellow men. I 
would not part with my Course for many times 
the amount paid. You not only get the Course 
but four beautiful Bound Volumes for refer- 
ence and future use. I shall always endeavor 
to interest my friends to the best of my ability 
and will advise them to take the Course, as a 
study of it will lead to their greatest aim in life. 
Alex. R. Gaul, 
272 Western St., Albany, N. Y. 



mS MOST SATISFACTORY INVESTMENT 

Martin- J. Rooney, 408 S. Ohio St.. Butte, Mont.: "The 
I. C. S. Course in Poultry Farming is thorough in every par- 
ticular. I can honestly say that I consider the price I paid 
for the Course one of the most satisfactory investments I ever 
made." 

THE BEST OF ITS KIND 

Fr.\xk H. Payne, 115 Patterson Ave., Ogden, Utah: "I 
am more than satisfied v\4th my Course in Poultry Farming 
for which I enrolled in the I. C. S., and can truthfully recom- 
mend it to any one wishing a thorough knowledge of the poul- 
try business. I have studied several books on poultry culture, 
but your Course is the best of its kind." 



NO EXCUSE FOR FAILURE 

D. H. McFalls, White Plains, X. Y.: "I am pleased to 
express my appreciation of the Poultry Course by the I. C. S. 
If I had had the knowledge your Course has now furnished me 
two years ago, I would have been spared much anxiety and saved 
loss, since your Paper on feeding alone would have been worth 
more to me than the cost of the whole Course. To any one 
having your Course, there need be no more excuse for failures 
in the poultry business. 



THE I. C. S. VERSUS EXPERIENCE 

C. L. Swartz, Detroit, Minn.: "I like your Poultry Farm- 
ing Course ver\' much and have learned a great many things 
that would have taken years of experience to have found out. 
Any one starting in the poultry business would be spending 
his time and money wisely by taking the Course, as when 
he has finished the Course, he can start right in to make 
a success of the business." 



MANAGING A POULTRY PLANT AT DOUBLE HIS FOR- 
MER WAGES 

Jack W. Patton. Coxeyetta Poultry Farm, Box 64, Mas- 
sillon, Ohio: " Since studying your Course in Poultry Farming, 
I have been able to increase my earnings 100 per cent. I have 
secured the position of manager with the Coxeyetta Poultry 
Farm of Massillon, Ohio. I consider the lesson papers on 
Poultry Feeding alone worth the price of the entire Course. 
Any one completing your Course should have no difficulty 
in securing a position as manager or superintendent of a poul- 
try plant." 



A Help to the Ambitious 

The knowledge which I have obtained from 
my Course has assisted me materially in my 
general farm work. My aim in studying the 
General Farming Course is to learn all that I 
possibly can now, so that when I shall be thrown 
on my own resources I may make a success of 
my profession. I find that the knowledge 
derived from my Course of instruction, owing 
to the clear and concise manner in which mat- 
ters pertaining to agriculture are explained and 
described, will assist me considerably toward 
the fulfillinent of my ambitions. 

John Baranowski, 
R. R. 3, Box 6, Montrose, Colo. 



10 



THE BEST SOURCE 

Gilbert M. Burr, Meshoppen, Pa.: "As a student now 
completing your Poultry Farming Course, I can heartily recom- 
mend it to any one engaged in raising or handling poultry. I 
do not believe any one can derive as much benefit from any 
other source as by studying this Course. As a breeder of single- 
comb White Orpingtons, I find it full of valuable information 
and practical instruction for all phases of the work." 

MONEY WELL SPENT 

John B. Gallagher, 418 Broad St., Bethlehem, Pa.: "In 
fifteen years of poultry keeping I have not had such a successful 
winter as the present one and I have had only the I. C. S. to 
thank for my success. I thought that I knew how to keep 
poultry, but every lesson taught me new points. I consider 
the Course the best investment of my life and any one inter- 
ested in poultry will do well with poultry and soon learn to 
make money from them. If they take this Course, it will be 
money well spent. Wishing you success in the good work you 
are doing, I remain." 

FOUND OUR COURSE SUPERIOR 

Paul O. Arnswald, 5917 N. 12th St., Philadelphia, Pa.: 
"I wish to inform you that I am a student of your Poultry 
Farming Course, and although I have seen a great many books 
on this subject, those I have received from you are absolutely 
the best I ever came in contact with. I think every one inter- 
ested in poultry should have these books and your Course. 
Thanking you for your interest in me, I remain." 

PRAISES HIS COURSE 

Lewis Furman, R. F. D. 2, Sunbury, Pa.: "I have almost 
completed your Course on Poultry Farming and I think it is 
fine. If more people took your Course on Poultry Fanning 
there would be more successful poultrymen." 

OUR COURSE INDISPENSABLE 

Edw. j. Murphy, 260 Bloomingdale Road, Worcester, Mass.: 
"I find your Course just what you claim it to be, and anybody 
intending to embark in the poultry business, either the novice, 
amateur, or expert, should study it. To accompUsh success 
your Course is indispensable." 

11 



Found His Course Helpful 
and Practical 

I desire to state that I have gained consider- 
able knowledge from your Course in Agricul- 
ture. I am engaged in farming and what I 
have learned from your Instruction Papers has 
been very helpful to me. I feel confident that 
any one wishing to take up agricultural work 
will derive great benefit from the study of an 
I. C. S. Agricultural Course. I do not see how 
the Course could be made any plainer or easier 
to vmderstand. Any one who can read and 
write can get along with such a Course without 
any trouble whatever. 

R. F. Snyder, 

Ashland, Pa. 



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NOTfflNG LACKING 

C. H. RoSENBAUM, 227 Poplar St., Norristown, Pa.: "Be- 
fore taking your Course in Poultry Husbandry. I had been 
studying the business for several years; reading the best 
books published on the subject, and all that, but in them ah 
there was always something lacking — something that was not 
thoroughly explained. Your Course in Poultry Husbandry 
leaves nothing unexplained to the smallest detail. I consider 
myself greatly benefited by your Course. The articles on 
feeding alone are worth the price of the entire Course. 

NO OTHER POULTRY LITERATURE 
APPROACHES OURS 

E. F. Staudacher, Brooklyn, N. Y.: "I have read various 
poultry magazines, government bulletins, different poultry- 
system books, etc., but I have never read any poultry literature 
that, in my opinion, could approach the Poultry Farming 
Course that you are now furnishing. It is the most practical, 
comprehensive, and voluminous treatise on the subject that I 
have ever come across; it fully covers the subject matter in all 
its phases; is most interestingly and entertainingly written, and 
it seems to me that the further I go into it. the more enthu- 
siastic I become with it. In short, it is a clear, concise, and 
most excellent write-up in which the presentation of facts is 
attractively set forth in a manner easily understood." 

STUDIED BOOKS AND FAILED— OUR INSTRUCTION 
TURNED FAILURE INTO SUCCESS 
Chas. S. Fry. 241 Rose St.. Reading. Pa.: "After having 
taken your Course on Poultry Farming, would say it is very 
interesting and instructive, and I have derived great benefits 
from it. I have been interested in poultry for about twenty 
years; read all kinds of poultry books and thought I knew a 
great deal about poultry, but had failures all through. Your 
Course has overcome these failures and cannot be recommended 
too highly, because it not only instructs how to house, breed, 
and feed all kinds of poultry, but gives all the details on dis- 
eases which must be known by all successful poultrymen." 

OUR COURSE MORE VALUABLE THAN ALL POULTRY 
PUBLICATIONS 

Ralph W. Weston, Box 26, Honolulu, Hawaii: "Having 
about completed your Course in Poultry Farming, I can say 
in all faith that the methods set forth are of priceless value 
to any one intending to keep poultry, ducks, geese, turkeys, 
or squabs. In a small way, I have applied the methods set 
forth in the Course and find the results as stated. In my 
opinion the Poultry Farming Course is worth all the poultry 
rnagazines published, and is also worth many times the expen- 
diture of time and money." 



26 



13 



Praises the I. C. S. 

As a student of your Agricultural Course, 
I have received the best instruction that I 
could have found anywhere. To a person 
that already has work of some kind, as I had, it 
offers a good chance of gaining more knowl- 
edge without taking very much time from 
regular work. Also, it is not expensive. The 
Course starts from the beginning and treats 
all subjects so that any one without any pre- 
vious knowledge of the subject can easily mas- 
ter the instruction given and can carry the 
work completely through. This knowledge 
will be of great practical assistance to any one. 
The volumes that are furnished with the 
Course are very good. I would advise any one 
thinking of taking a Course to do so with the 
International Correspondence Schools. 
Ernest E. Vest, 

Scottsburg, Ind. 



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WORTH MANY TIMES THE PRICE 

Clarence Theo. Anvick, Box 23, Areata, Cal.: "It would 
hardly seem just for one to finish your Course in Poultry Farm- 
ing without giving an opinion on it. Every branch of poultry 
farming has been so thoroughly touched, and presented in such 
simple language that no one who takes up its study can fail 
to fully comprehend the text. The Course is worth many 
times the price paid for it and cannot be easily forgotten. It 
can be safely recommended to all who wish a broader knowl- 
edge of the subject, and should appeal alike both to those who 
intend to enter the business of poultry raising on a small scale 
or a large scale." 



DOLLARS AND CENTS KNOWLEDGE 

Thomas H. Pollard, 916 Eighth Ave., Brooklyn, N. Y.: 
"Having been a subscriber to your Mechanical Course in for- 
mer years, I was pleased to learn that you were issuing a Course 
in Poultry Farming. Knowing the need of information on this 
subject, I siibscribed for the Course. In reading and study- 
ing the first Instruction Papers, I began to realize the greatness 
and perfection of the Course. Step by step the student is led 
to proficiency and also I find that each step has been carefully 
examined beforehand from one standpoint — the question of 
dollars and cents. In this lies the crux of the matter, the 
secret of success." 



SUPERIOR TO OTHER COURSES 

W. A. Moore, 14.3 Sherman Ave., N. Hamilton, Ont., Can.: 
"This is to certify that I have nearly completed the I. C. S. 
Poultry Course and I find it up to date and the best so far. 
I have taken courses in two other poultry schools and followed 
the experimental farms and find points completely covered 
in the I. C. S. Course which all others said they had no data of. 
Any one desiring a thoroughly practical poultry course can get 
nothing better." 



HIS COURSE BROUGHT SUCCESS 

D. Brannan, 223 Beech St., Grafton, W. Va.: "I can truly 
say that since I began to study the Course in Poultry Farming 
I have had perfect success mth my fowls. I have 11 pullets 
and four cockerels and have been getting from 50 to 75 per cent, 
egg yield since my flock was 6 months old, and I am not troubled 
with colds, etc., in my flock as before. The Poultry Farming 
Course is very good in its teachings with regard to the com- 
mercial side of poultry raising; that is, raising fowls for meat and 
eggs." 

15 



ULU D 15*12 



Proprietor of a Pros- 
perous Business 

Before I enrolled with the I. C. S. for the 
Poultry Farming Course I was in the milk 
business. Since enrolment I have sold out and 
now devote all my time to poultry. I found no 
difficulty in completing my Course and I have 
to thank the I. C. S. for putting me where I am 
today. No one going into the poultry busi- 
ness for profit can do without the I. C. S. 
Course. There is much to learn and the Course 
will take you over all the dangerous places in 
safety. There is no branch of the poultry 
business omitted. I am at present making 
about three times as much by selling hatching 
eggs and day-old chicks as I did before enrol- 
ment. 

G. F. Kaihler. 

508 S. Lime St., Lancaster, Pa. 



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